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7306 - GUERRA GRECO-TURCA

Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) Guerra Greco-Turca (1919-1922) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
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Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 ( Interwar period ) Guerra Greco-Turca de 1919-1922 ( período entre-guerras )
Part of the Turkish War of Independence Parte da Guerra de Independência Turca

Trench warfare during the Greco-Turkish War Trincheira de guerra durante a Guerra Greco-Turca
Date Data May 1919 – October 1922 Maio 1919 - outubro 1922
Location Localização West Anatolia Oeste da Anatólia
Result Resultado Decisive Turkish victory; Treaty of Lausanne . Decisivo Turco vitória; Tratado de Lausanne .
Territorial Territoriais
changes mudanças Lands initially ceded to Greece from the Ottoman Empire are restored to the Republic of Turkey . Population exchange between the two nations. Terras inicialmente cedida à Grécia do Império Otomano são restauradas para a República da Turquia . intercâmbio populacional entre as duas nações.

Belligerents Os beligerantes
Greece Grécia Turkish Revolutionaries Revolucionários Turcos
Commanders and leaders Os comandantes e líderes
Leonidas Paraskevopoulos Leonidas Paraskevopoulos
Anastasios Papoulas Anastasios Papoulas
Georgios Hatzianestis Georgios Hatzianestis Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
İsmet İnönü İsmet İnönü
Fevzi Çakmak Fevzi Çakmak
Ali Fethi Okyar Ali Fethi Okyar
Strength Força
Maximum deployed, 12 Divisions~200,000 (without including irregulars) [ 1 ] Máximo implantado, 12 divisões ~ 200 mil (sem incluir irregulares) [1] 50,000 in 1919 [ 2 ] 450,000 in 1922 (if irregulars included) [ 3 ] 50.000 em 1919 [2] 450.000 em 1922 (se irregulares incluído) [3]
Casualties and losses Acidentes e perdas
24,240 dead 24.240 mortos
48,880 wounded 48.880 feridos
18,085 missing [ 4 ] 18.085 desaparecidos [4] 10,885 dead [ citation needed ] 10.885 mortos [ carece de fontes? ]
31,173 wounded in the battlefield, 31.173 feridos no campo de batalha,
22,690 dead from disease [ citation needed ] [ 5 ] 34,885 dead all Turkish War of Independence 22.690 mortos por doenças [ carece de fontes? ] [5] 34.885 mortos todos os Guerra de Independência Turca
[ 6 ] [6]

[show]Greco-Turkish War Guerra Greco-Turca

İzmir – Aydın – 1st İnönü – 2nd İnönü – Eskişehir – Sakarya – Dumlupinar İzmir - Aydın - İnönü 1 - 2 İnönü - Eskişehir - Sakarya - Dumlupinar


The Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 , also called the War in Asia Minor or the Greek campaign of the Turkish War of Independence or the Asia Minor Catastrophe , was a series of military events occurring during the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after World War I between May 1919 and October 1922. A Guerra Greco-Turca de 1919-1922, também chamada de Guerra na Ásia Menor ou a campanha grega da Guerra de Independência Turca ou a Catástrofe da Ásia Menor, foi uma série de acontecimentos militares ocorridos durante a partilha do Império Otomano após a Primeira Guerra Mundial Eu , entre maio de 1919 e outubro de 1922. The war was fought between Greece and Turkish revolutionaries of the Turkish National Movement that would later establish the Republic of Turkey . A guerra foi travada entre a Grécia ea Turquia revolucionários do Movimento Nacional Turco que viria a estabelecer a República da Turquia .

The Greek campaign was launched because the western Allies , particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George , had promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire . A campanha foi lançada grego porque o oeste aliados , especialmente o primeiro ministro britânico David Lloyd George , tinha prometido ganhos territoriais da Grécia, em detrimento do Império Otomano . It ended with Greece giving up all territory gained during the war, returning to its pre-war borders, and engaging in a population exchange with the newly established state of Turkey under provisions in the Treaty of Lausanne . Ela terminou com a Grécia desistindo de todos os territórios conquistados durante a guerra, voltando para as fronteiras pré-guerra os seus, e se envolver em uma troca populacional com o estabelecido novo Estado da Turquia ao abrigo das disposições do Tratado de Lausanne .

The collective failure of the separate military campaigns of Greece, the Armenians , and the French against the Turkish revolutionaries forced the Allies to abandon the Treaty of Sèvres . O fracasso coletivo dos militares campanhas separadas da Grécia, os armênios , e os franceses contra os revolucionários turcos forçado os Aliados a abandonar o Tratado de Sèvres . Instead, they negotiated a new treaty at Lausanne. Em vez disso, eles negociaram um novo Tratado de Lausanne. This new treaty recognised the independence of the Republic of Turkey and its sovereignty over Eastern Thrace and Anatolia . Este novo tratado reconheceu a independência da República da Turquia e da sua soberania sobre a Trácia oriental e da Anatólia .

Contents Conteúdo [hide]
1 Background 1 Contexto
1.1 Geopolitical context 1,1 contexto geopolítico
1.2 The Greek community in Anatolia 1,2 A comunidade grega na Anatólia
1.3 Greek nationalism 1,3 nacionalismo grego
1.4 The National Schism in Greece 1,4 Nacional Cisma A na Grécia
2 Greek expansion and overview of major events during it 2 expansão grega e uma visão geral dos principais eventos durante o mesmo
2.1 Occupation of Smyrna (May 1919) 2,1 Ocupação de Smyrna (maio 1919)
2.2 Greek summer offensives (Summer 1920) 2,2 grego ofensivas de verão (Summer 1920)
2.3 Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) 2,3 Tratado de Sèvres (agosto 1920)
2.4 Greek advance (October 1920) 2,4 avanço grego (Outubro 1920)
2.5 Change in Greek government (November 1920) 2,5 Mudança de governo grego (novembro 1920)
2.6 Battles of İnönü (December 1920 – March 1921) Batalhas de 2,6 İnönü (Dezembro de 1920 - março 1921)
2.7 Shift of support towards Turkish Revolutionaries 2,7 transferência dos apoios para Revolucionários Turcos
2.8 Battle of Afyonkarahisar-Eskişehir (July 1921) 2,8 Batalha de Eskişehir-Afyonkarahisar (Julho 1921)
2.9 Battle of Sakarya (August and September 1921) 2,9 Batalha de Sakarya (Agosto e Setembro de 1921)
2.10 Stalemate (September 1921 – August 1922) Empate 2,10 (Setembro 1921 - Agosto de 1922)
3 Turkish counter-attack (August 1922) 3 turco contra-ataque (Agosto 1922)
3.1 Re-capture of Smyrna (September 1922) Re 3,1 captura de Esmirna (Setembro 1922)
3.2 Chanak Crisis 3,2 Crise Chanak
4 Resolution 4 Resolução
4.1 Factors contributing to the outcome 4.1 Factores que contribuem para o resultado
5 Atrocities and claims of ethnic cleansing by both sides 5 Atrocidades e reivindicações de limpeza étnica por ambos os lados
5.1 Greek massacres of Turks 5,1 massacres grega de turcos
5.2 Greek scorched-earth policy 5,2 de terra arrasada política grega
5.3 Turkish massacres of Greeks and Armenians 5,3 massacres turcos de gregos e armênios
6 See also 6 Veja também
7 Footnotes 7 Notas de Rodapé
8 References 8 Referências
9 In literature and the arts 9 Na literatura e nas artes

[ edit ] Background [ editar ] Antecedentes [ edit ] Geopolitical context [ editar ] Contexto Geopolítico

The territories claimed by Venizelos for the Greek state in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Os territórios reivindicados por Venizelos para o estado grego na Conferência de Paz de Paris de 1919. The striped area corresponds to the region where the Greek and French claims coincide. A área listrada corresponde à região onde as reivindicações grego e francês coincidem. Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire Ver artigo principal: Particionamento do Império Otomano
Further information: Agreement of St.-Jean-de-Maurienne Mais informações: Acordo de Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne
The geopolitical context of this conflict is linked to the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire which was a direct consequence of World War I and involvement of the Ottomans in the Middle Eastern theatre . O contexto geopolítico do conflito está relacionada com a partilha do Império Otomano, que foi uma consequência directa da I Guerra Mundial e da participação dos otomanos no Oriente Médio teatro . Greeks received an order to land in Smyrna by the Triple Entente as part of the partition. Gregos receberam uma ordem para pousar em Smyrna pela Tríplice Entente , como parte da partição. During this war, the Ottoman government collapsed completely and the Ottoman Empire was divided amongst the victorious Entente powers with the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920. Durante essa guerra, o governo otomano desmoronou completamente eo Império Otomano foi dividido entre as potências vitoriosas Entente, com a assinatura do Tratado de Sèvres em 10 de agosto de 1920.

There were a number of secret agreements regarding the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I. The Triple Entente had made contradictory promises about post-war arrangements concerning Greek hopes in Asia Minor . [ 7 ] Houve uma série de acordos secretos sobre a partilha do Império Otomano no final da Primeira Guerra Mundial I. A Tríplice Entente tinha feito promessas contraditórias sobre a guerra pós-as disposições relativas à espera grega da Ásia Menor . [7]

At the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 , Eleftherios Venizelos lobbied hard for an expanded Hellas (the Megali Idea ) that would include the large Greek communities in Northern Epirus , Thrace and Asia Minor. Na Conferência de Paz de Paris de 1919 , Eleftherios Venizelos forte lobby para uma Hellas expandida (o Megali Idea ), que incluiria o grego grandes comunidades no Norte Epiro , Trácia e Ásia Menor. The western Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, had promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire if Greece entered the war on the Allied side . [ 8 ] These included Eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros (İmroz, since 29 July 1979 Gökçeada) and Tenedos ( Bozcaada ), and parts of western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna, which contained sizable ethnic Greek populations. Os aliados ocidentais, em particular o primeiro ministro britânico David Lloyd George, tinha prometido ganhos territoriais da Grécia, em detrimento do Império Otomano, se a Grécia entrou na guerra ao lado dos Aliados . [8] Estes incluíram Trácia Oriental, as ilhas de Imbros (Imroz, desde julho 29, 1979 Gökçeada) e Tenedos ( Bozcaada ), e partes da Anatólia ocidental em torno da cidade de Esmirna, que continha considerável populações de gregos étnicos.

The Italian and Anglo-French repudiation of the Agreement of St.-Jean-de-Maurienne signed on April 26, 1917, which settled the "middle eastern interest" of Italy, was overridden with the Greek occupation, as İzmir (Smyrna) was part of the agreements promised to Italy. A anglo-francês e italiano repúdio do Acordo de Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne , assinado em 26 de abril de 1917, que solucionou o "Oriental interesse do meio" da Itália, foi substituído com a ocupação grega, como Izmir (Esmirna) foi parte dos acordos prometidos para a Itália. Before the occupation the Italian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, angry about the possibility of the Greek occupation of Western Anatolia, left the conference and did not return to Paris until May 5. Antes da ocupação da delegação italiana à Conferência de Paz de Paris de 1919, irritado com a possibilidade de a ocupação grega da Anatólia ocidental, deixou a conferência e não retornou a Paris, até 05 de maio. The absence of the Italian delegation from the Conference ended up facilitating Lloyd George's efforts to persuade France and the United States in Greece's favor to prevent Italian operations in Western Anatolia. A ausência da delegação italiana da Conferência acabou por facilitar os esforços de Lloyd George para persuadir a França e os Estados Unidos em favor da Grécia para evitar operações italianas no oeste da Anatólia.

According to some historians, it was the Greek occupation of Smyrna that created the Turkish National movement. Arnold J. Toynbee for example argued that: [ 9 ] alguns historiadores, foi o grego de Esmirna, que criou a ocupação turca. movimento nacional De acordo com Arnold J. Toynbee , por exemplo, argumentou que: [9]

"The war between Turkey and Greece which burst out at this time was a defensive war for safeguarding of the Turkish homelands in Anatolia. It was a result of the Allied policy of imperialism operating in a foreign state, the military resources and powers of which were seriously under-estimated; it was provoked by the unwarranted invasion of a Greek army of occupation..." "A guerra entre a Turquia ea Grécia, que explodiu no momento foi uma guerra de defesa para a salvaguarda das terras turcas da Anatólia. Foi um resultado da política de aliados de exploração do imperialismo em um país estrangeiro, os recursos militares e poderes dos quais foram seriamente subestimado, foi provocada pela invasão injustificada de um exército grego de ocupação ... "

[ edit ] The Greek community in Anatolia [ editar ] A comunidade grega na Anatólia

The archive document of 1914 Census of the Ottoman Empire . O documento de arquivo do Censo 1914 do Império Otomano . Total population (sum of all millets ) was 20,975,345 and the Greek population before the Balkan wars were 2,833,370 (1909 census) was dropped to 1,792,206 (due to lost of lands to Greece) in 1914 census; published also by Stanford J. Shaw . [ 10 ] População total (soma de todos os millets ) foi 20.975.345 ea população grega antes da guerra dos Balcãs foram 2.833.370 (censo 1909), foi abandonada para 1.792.206 (devido à perda de terras para a Grécia) em 1914 censo, publicada também pela Stanford J. Shaw . [ 10] One of the reasons proposed by the Greek government for launching the Asia Minor expedition was that there was a sizeable Greek-speaking Orthodox Christian population inhabiting Anatolia that needed protection. Uma das razões proposto pelo governo grego para o lançamento da expedição da Ásia Menor, foi que houve uma considerável de língua grega ortodoxa cristã da população que habita a Anatólia, que precisava de proteção. Greeks have lived in Asia Minor since antiquity and before the outbreak of the First World War, up to 2.5 million Greeks lived in the Ottoman Empire. [ 11 ] The suggestion though that the Greeks constituted the majority of the population in the lands claimed by Greece has been contested by a number of historians. Gregos viveram na Ásia Menor desde a antiguidade e antes da eclosão da Primeira Guerra Mundial, até 2,5 milhões de gregos viviam no Império Otomano. [11] A sugestão de que embora os gregos constituíam a maioria da população das terras reivindicadas pela Grécia tem sido contestada por alguns historiadores. In their book about the British foreign policy of World War I and post war years, Cedric James Lowe and Michael L. Dockrill argued that: "...Greek claims were at best debatable, [they were] perhaps a bare majority, more likely a large minority in the Smyrna Vilayet, which lay in an overwhelmingly Turkish Anatolia." [ 12 ] Precise demographics are further obscured by the Ottoman policy of dividing the population according to religion rather than descent, language or self-identification. Em seu livro sobre a política externa britânica da Primeira Guerra Mundial e pós guerra anos, Cedric James Lowe e Michael L. Dockrill argumentou que: "... reivindicações gregos eram na melhor das hipóteses discutíveis, [foram] talvez uma pequena maioria, o mais provável uma grande minoria no Vilayet Smyrna, que estava em uma turca Anatolia esmagadora maioria. " [12] demográficos mais precisos são obscurecidos pela política otomana de dividir a população segundo a religião, em vez de, a linguagem descida ou auto-identificação.

Nevertheless, the fear for the safety of the Greek population was a well-founded one; In 1915, an extreme nationalist group called the Young Turks enacted genocidal policies against the minorities in the Ottoman Empire, slaughtering hundreds of thousands of people. No entanto, o temor pela segurança da população grega foi uma bem-fundada uma; Em 1915, um grupo nacionalista extremista, os "Jovens Turcos" promulgada políticas genocidas contra as minorias no Império Otomano, matando centenas de milhares de pessoas. While the Armenian Genocide is the best known of these events, there were also atrocities towards Greeks in Pontus and western Anatolia. Enquanto o genocídio armênio é o mais conhecido destes eventos, também houve atrocidades para os gregos em Pontus e da Anatólia ocidental. The Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos stated to a British newspaper that: [ 13 ] O primeiro-ministro grego Eleftherios Venizelos declarou a um jornal britânico que: [13]

"Greece is not making war against Islam, but against the anachronistic Ottoman Government, and its corrupt, ignominious, and bloody administration, with a view to the expelling it from those territories where the majority of the population consists of Greeks." "A Grécia não é fazer a guerra contra o Islã, mas contra o Governo Otomano anacrônica, ea sua administração corrupta, infame e sangrenta, com vista a expulsá-la dos territórios onde a maioria da população é composta de gregos".

To an extent the above danger was overstated by Venizelos as a negotiating card on the table of Sèvres, in order to gain the support of the Allied governments. Até certo ponto, o perigo acima foi exagerada por Venizelos como um cartão de negociação sobre a tabela de Sèvres, a fim de obter o apoio dos governos aliados. For example, the fact that the Young Turks was not in power at the time of the war makes such a justification less straightforward. Por exemplo, o fato de que os "Jovens Turcos" não estava no poder na época da guerra faz com que essa justificação menos direta. Most of the leaders of that regime had fled the country at the end of World War I and the Ottoman government in Constantinople [ 14 ] [ 15 ] was already under British control. A maioria dos líderes do regime que tinham fugido do país no final da I Guerra Mundial e do governo Otomano em Constantinopla [14] [15], já estava sob controle britânico. Furthermore, Venizelos had already revealed his desires for annexation of territories from the Ottoman Empire in the early stages of the World War I, before these massacres had taken place. Além disso, Venizelos já tinha revelado os seus desejos de anexação de territórios do Império Otomano nos estágios iniciais da Primeira Guerra Mundial, antes que estes massacres tinha ocorrido. In a letter sent to Greek King Constantine dating January 1915, he wrote that: "I have the impression that the concessions to Greece in Asia Minor... would be so extensive that another equally large and not less rich Greece will be added to the doubled Greece which emerged from the victorious Balkan wars" [ 16 ] Em uma carta enviada para o grego do rei Constantino namoro janeiro de 1915, ele escreveu que: "Tenho a impressão de que as concessões para a Grécia, na Ásia Menor ... seria tão extensa que outro grande e não menos rica, a Grécia também será adicionado à duplicou Grécia, que emergiu da guerra dos Balcãs vitorioso " [16]

In an ironic way, the Greek invasion might instead have precipitated the atrocities that it was supposed to prevent. De forma irônica, a invasão grega poderia sim ter precipitado as atrocidades que ele deveria evitar. Arnold J. Toynbee blamed the policies pursued by Great Britain and Greece, and the decisions of the Paris Peace conference as factors leading to the atrocities committed by both sides during the war: Arnold J. Toynbee culpou as políticas seguidas pela Grã-Bretanha e Grécia, e as decisões da Conferência de Paz de Paris como fatores que levam às atrocidades cometidas por ambos os lados durante a guerra:

"...The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. Venizelos's and Mr. Lloyd George's original miscalculations at Paris." [ 17 ] "... Os gregos de" Ponto "e os turcos dos territórios ocupados grega, foram vítimas de alguma grau de Mr. Venizelos e George's originais miscalculations Sr. Lloyd em Paris." [17]

[ edit ] Greek nationalism [ editar ] nacionalismo grego See also: Megali Idea Veja também: Megali Idea


The Greek kingdom and the Greek diaspora in the Balkans and western Asia Minor, according to a 1919 Greek map submitted to the Paris Peace Conference. O reino grego e da diáspora grega nos Balcãs e no oeste da Ásia Menor, de acordo com um mapa de 1919 grego apresentou à Conferência de Paz de Paris. One of the main national motivations for initiating the war was to realize the Megali Idea, a core concept of Greek nationalism. Uma das principais motivações nacionais para o início da guerra foi a perceber a idéia Megali, um conceito fundamental do nacionalismo grego. The Megali Idea was an irredentist vision of a restoration of a Greater Greece on both sides of the Aegean that would incorporate Ottoman-occupied territories with Greek populations outside the borders of the Kingdom of Greece , which was initially very small. A idéia era um Megali irredentista visão de uma restauração de uma Grécia maior em ambos os lados do mar Egeu que incorpore-territórios ocupados otomano, com as populações gregas fora das fronteiras do Reino da Grécia , que inicialmente era muito pequeno. From the time of Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830, the Megali Idea had played a major role in Greek politics. Desde o momento da independência grega do Império Otomano em 1830, a idéia Megali tinha desempenhado um papel importante na política grega. Greek politicians, since the independence of the Greek state, had made several speeches on the issue of the "historic inevitability of the expansion of the Greek Kingdom." [ 18 ] For instance, Greek politician Ioannis Kolettis voiced this conviction in the assembly in 1844: "There are two great centres of Hellenism. Athens is the capital of the Kingdom. Constantinople is the great capital, the City, the dream and hope of all Greeks." políticos gregos, desde a independência do estado grego, fez vários discursos sobre a questão da "inevitabilidade histórica da expansão do Reino grego." [18] Por exemplo, o grego Ioannis Kolettis político manifestou esta convicção no conjunto em 1844 : "Há dois grandes centros do helenismo Atenas é a capital do Reino de Constantinopla é o grande capital, a cidade, o sonho ea esperança de todos os gregos..."

The Great Idea was not merely the product of 19th century nationalism. A grande idéia não era apenas o produto do nacionalismo do século 19. It was, in one of its aspects, deeply rooted in many Greeks' religious consciousnesses. Foi, em um de seus aspectos, profundamente enraizada na consciência gregos muitos religiosos. This aspect was the recovery of Constantinople for Christendom and the reestablishment of the universal Christian Byzantine Empire which had fallen in 1453. Este aspecto foi a recuperação de Constantinopla para a cristandade e do restabelecimento do Império Cristão Bizantino universal que tinha caído em 1453. "Ever since this time the recovery of St. Sophia and the City had been handed down from generation to generation as the destiny and aspiration of the Greek Orthodox." [ 18 ] The Megali Idea, besides Constantinople, included most traditional lands of the Greeks, Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, the Aegean Islands, Cyprus, the coastlands of Asia Minor and Pontus on the Black Sea. "Desde que esse tempo de recuperação de Santa Sofia ea cidade tinha sido transmitida de geração em geração, como o destino e aspiração da Igreja Ortodoxa grega." [18] A idéia Megali, além de Constantinopla, incluídas as terras tradicionais maioria dos gregos , Creta, Tessália, Epiro, Macedónia e Trácia, o Mar Egeu, em Chipre, as ilhas da Ásia Menor e Pontus no Mar Negro. Asia Minor was an essential part of the Greek world and an area of enduring Greek cultural dominance. Ásia Menor era uma parte essencial do mundo grego e uma área de resistir a dominação cultural grego. The Greek city-states and later the Byzantine Empire also exercised political control of most of the region, from the Bronze Age to the 12th century CE, when the first Seljuk Turk raids reached it. As cidades-estados gregas e, posteriormente, o Império Bizantino, também exercer o controle político da maior parte da região, desde a Idade do Bronze ao século 12 EC, quando o primeiro Seljuk Turk invasões alcançado.

Even though the Anatolian campaign is often understood under post-World War I concepts as a war of conquest, from the point of view of 19th century Greek nationalism this was just another war of liberation, one to redeem the "enslaved brother," not different from the then recent Balkan Wars . Mesmo que a campanha da Anatólia é muitas vezes entendido no pós-Primeira Guerra Mundial conceitos como uma guerra de conquista, do ponto de vista do nacionalismo grego do século 19 isso era apenas uma guerra de libertação, uma para resgatar o "irmão escravizado", não é diferente da então recente guerra dos Balcãs .

[ edit ] The National Schism in Greece [ editar ] O Cisma Nacional na Grécia See also: National Schism Veja também: Nacional Cisma
The National Schism in Greece was the deep split of Greek politics and society between two factions, the one led by Eleftherios Venizelos and the other by King Constantine, that predated World War I but escalated significantly over the decision on which side Greece should support during the war. O cisma nacional da Grécia foi a profunda divisão da política grega ea sociedade entre duas facções, uma liderada pelo o Eleftherios Venizelos ea outra pelo rei Constantino, que antecedeu a Primeira Guerra Mundial, mas intensificou significativamente ao longo da decisão sobre qual lado deve apoiar a Grécia durante o guerra.

The United Kingdom had hoped that strategic considerations might persuade Constantine to join the cause of the Allies of World War I, but the King and his supporters insisted on strict neutrality, especially whilst the outcome of the conflict was hard to predict. In addition, family ties and emotional attachments made it difficult for Constantine to decide which side to support during World War I. The King's dilemma was further increased when the Ottomans and the Bulgarians , both having grievances and aspirations against the Greek Kingdom, joined the Central Powers . According to Queen Sophia, Constantine's dream of "marching into the great city of Hagia Sophia at the head of the Greek army " was still "in his heart" and it appeared as if the King was ready to enter the war against the Ottoman Empire. The conditions, however, were clear: the occupation of Constantinople had to be undertaken without incurring excessive risk.

Though Constantine did remain decidedly neutral, Prime Minister of Greece Eleftherios Venizelos had from an early point decided that Greece's interests would be best served by joining the Entente and started diplomatic efforts with the Allies to prepare the ground for concessions following an eventual victory. The disagreement and the subsequent dismissal of Venizelos by the King resulted in a deep personal rift between the two, which spilled over into their followers and the wider Greek society. Greece became divided into two radically opposed political camps, as Venizelos set up a separate state in Northern Greece, and eventually, with Allied support, forced the King to abdicate. In May 1917, after the exile of Constantine, Venizélos returned to Athens and allied with the Entente. Greek military forces (though divided between supporters of the monarchy and supporters of " Venizelism ") began to take part in military operations against the Bulgarian Army on the border.

The act of entering the war and the preceding events resulted in a deep political and social division in post-World War I Greece. The country's foremost political formations, the Venizelist Liberals and the Royalists, already involved in a long and bitter rivalry over pre-war politics, reached a state of outright hatred towards each other. Both parties viewed the other's actions during the First World War as politically illegitimate and treasonous. This enmity inevitably spread throughout Greek society, creating a deep rift that contributed decisively to the failed Asia Minor campaign and resulted in much social unrest in the inter war years.

[ edit ] Greek expansion and overview of major events during it

Map of Greek and Turkish offensives. The military aspect of the war begins with the Armistice of Mudros . The military operations of the Greco-Turkish war can be roughly divided into three main phases: The first phase, spanning the period from May 1919 to October 1920, encompasses the Greek Landings in Asia Minor and their consolidation along the Aegean Coast. The second phase lasted from October 1920 to August 1921, and was characterised by Greek offensive operations. The third and final phase lasted until August 1922, when the strategic initiative was held by the Turkish Army.

[ edit ] Occupation of Smyrna (May 1919) Main article: Occupation of İzmir
On May 15, 1919, twenty thousand [ 19 ] Greek soldiers landed in Smyrna and took control of the city and its surroundings under cover of the Greek, French, and British navies. Legal justifications for the landings was found in the article 7 of the Armistice of Mudros, which allowed the Allies "to occupy any strategic points in the event of any situation arising which threatens the security of Allies." [ 20 ] The Greeks had already brought their forces into Eastern Thrace (apart from Constantinople and its region).



Greek soldiers taking their posts in Smyrna ( Turkish : Izmir ) amidst the jubilant ethnic Greek population of the city, 15 May 1919. The Christian population of Smyrna (mainly Greeks and Armenians), according to different sources, was either forming a minority [ 21 ] [ 22 ] or a majority [ 23 ] compared to Muslim Turkish population of the city. Official Ottoman state census statistics of the time illustrate that the population was majorly Muslim and Turkish. [ 24 ] The majority of the Greek population residing in the city greeted the Greek troops as liberators. [ citation needed ] By contrast, the majority of the Muslim population saw this as an invading force and some Turks resented the Greeks as a result of a long history of conflict and antagonism. Nevertheless, the Greek landings were received by and large passively, only facing sporadic resistance, mainly by small groups of irregular Turkish troops in the suburbs [ citation needed ] . The majority of the Turkish forces in the region either surrendered peacefully to the Greek Army, or fled to the countryside. [ citation needed ] .

As Greek troops advanced to the barracks, where the Ottoman commander Ali Nadir Pasha has been ordered to offer no resistance, a Turk in the crowd fired a shot, killing the Greek standard-bearer [ 25 ] Greek troops panicked and started firing both at the barracks and the government building. Between 300 to 400 Turks were killed or wounded, against 100 Greeks, two of whom were soldiers, on the first day. [ 25 ]

[ edit ] Greek summer offensives (Summer 1920) During the summer of 1920, the Greek army launched a series of successful offensives in the directions of the Büyük Menderes River (Meander) Valley, Karşıyaka (Peramos) and Alaşehir (Philadelphia). The overall strategic objective of these operations, which were met by increasingly stiff Turkish resistance, was to provide strategic depth to the defence of Izmir (Smyrna). To that end, the Greek zone of occupation was extended over all of Western and most of North-Western Anatolia.

[ edit ] Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) Main article: Treaty of Sèvres


Partition of Anatolia according to the Treaty of Sèvres . In return for the contribution of the Greek army on the side of the Allies, the Allies supported the assignment of eastern Thrace and the millet of Smyrna to Greece. This treaty ended the First World War in Asia Minor and, at the same time, sealed the fate of the Ottoman Empire . Henceforth, the Ottoman Empire would no longer be a European power.

On August 10, 1920, the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Sèvres ceding to Greece Thrace, up to the Chatalja lines . More importantly, Turkey renounced to Greece all rights over Imbros and Tenedos, retaining the small territories of Constantinople, the islands of Marmara, and "a tiny strip of European territory." The Straits of Bosporus were placed under an International Commission, as they were now open to all.

Turkey was furthermore forced to transfer to Greece "the exercise of her rights of sovereignty" over Smyrna in addition to "a considerable Hinterland, merely retaining a 'flag over an outer fort'." Though Greece administered the Smyrna enclave, its sovereignty remained, nominally, with the Sultan. According to the provisions of the Treaty, Smyrna was to maintain a local parliament and, if within five years time she asked to be incorporated within the Kingdom of Greece, the provision was made that the League of Nations would hold a plebiscite to decide on such matters.

The treaty was never ratified by the Ottoman Empire [ 26 ] [ 27 ] or Greece. [ 28 ]

[ edit ] Greek advance (October 1920) In October 1920, the Greek army advanced further east into Anatolia, with the encouragement of Lloyd George, who intended to increase pressure on the Turkish and Ottoman governments to sign the Treaty of Sèvres. This advance began under the Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos, but soon after the offensive began, Venizelos fell from power and was replaced by Dimitrios Gounaris . The strategic objective of these operations was to defeat the Turkish Nationalists and force Kemal into peace negotiations. The advancing Greeks, still holding superiority in numbers and modern equipment at this point, had hoped for an early battle in which they were confident of breaking up ill-equipped Turkish forces. Yet they met with little resistance, as the Turks managed to retreat in an orderly fashion and avoid encirclement. Churchill said: "The Greek columns trailed along the country roads passing safely through many ugly defiles , and at their approach the Turks, under strong and sagacious leadership, vanished into the recesses of Anatolia." [ 29 ]

[ edit ] Change in Greek government (November 1920) During October 1920, King Alexander was bitten by a monkey kept at the Royal Gardens and died within days from sepsis . This incident has been characterized as the "monkey bite that changed the course of Greek history". [ 30 ] Venizelos's preference was to declare a Greek republic and thus end the monarchy. However, he was well aware that this would not be acceptable to the European powers. [ citation needed ]

After King Alexander died leaving no heirs, the general elections scheduled to be held on November 1, 1920 suddenly became the focus of a new conflict between the supporters of Venizelos and those of King Constantine. The anti-venizelist faction campaigned on the basis of accusations of internal mismanagement and authoritarian attitudes of the government, which, due to the war, had stayed in power without elections since 1915. At the same time they promoted the idea of disengagement in Asia Minor, without though presenting a clear plan as to how this would happen. On the contrary, Venizelos was identified with the continuation of a war that did not seem to go anywhere. The majority of the Greek people were both war-weary and tired of the almost dictatorial regime of the Venizelists, so opted for change. To the surprise of many, Venizelos won only 118 out of the total 369 seats. The crushing defeat obliged Venizelos and a number of his closest supporters to leave the country. To this day many question the rationale for his decision to call elections at that time.

The new government under Dimitrios Gounaris prepared for a plebiscite on the return of King Constantine. Noting the King's neutrality during World War I , the Allies warned the Greek government that if he should be returned to the throne they would cut off all financial and military aid to Greece. A month later a plebiscite called for the return of King Constantine. Soon after his return, the King replaced many of the World War I veteran officers and he appointed inexperienced monarchist officers to senior positions. The leadership of the campaign was given to Anastasios Papoulas , while himself assumed nominally the overall command. In addition, many of the remaining venizelist officers resigned appalled by the regime change. The Greek Army which had secured Smyrna and the Asia Minor coast was purged of Venizelos's supporters while it marched on Ankara.

[ edit ] Battles of İnönü (December 1920 – March 1921) Main article: First Battle of İnönü
By December 1920, the Greeks had advanced on two fronts, approaching Eskişehir from the North West and from Smyrna, and had consolidated their occupation zone. In early 1921 they resumed their advance with small scale reconnaissance incursions that met stiff resistance from entrenched Turkish Nationalists, who were increasingly better prepared and equipped as a regular army.

The Greek advance was halted for the first time at the First Battle of İnönü on January 11, 1921. Even though this was a minor confrontation involving only one Greek division, the political significance for the fledging Turkish revolutionaries cannot be overestimated. This development led to Allied proposals to amend the Treaty of Sèvres at a conference in London where both the Turkish Revolutionary and Ottoman governments were represented.

Although some agreements were reached with Italy, France and Britain, the decisions were not agreed to by the Greek government, who believed that they still retained the strategic advantage and could yet negotiate from a stronger position. The Greeks initiated another attack on March 27, the Second Battle of İnönü , where the Turkish troops fiercely resisted and finally defeated the Greeks on March 30. The British favoured a Greek territorial expansion but refused to offer any military assistance in order to avoid provoking the French. [ citation needed ] The Turkish forces received significant assistance from the newly formed Soviet Union . [ 31 ]

[ edit ] Shift of support towards Turkish Revolutionaries Main article: Conference of London
See also: Treaty of Alexandropol , Treaty of Ankara (1921) , and Treaty of Moscow (1921)
By this time all other fronts had been settled in favour of the Turks [ citation needed ] , freeing more resources to focus on the main threat of the Greek Army. The French and the Italians concluded private [ citation needed ] agreements with the Turkish revolutionaries in recognition of their mounting strength. Turkish revolutionaries bought equipment from Italy and France, who threw in their lot with the Turkish revolutionaries against Greece which was seen as a British client. The Italians used their base in Antalya to assist, especially from the point of view of intelligence, to the Turkish revolutionaries against the Greeks. [ 32 ] There was a positive relationship between the Soviet Union and the Turkish Revolutionaries, which was solidified under Treaty of Moscow (1921) . The Soviet Union also supported Kemal with money and ammunition. [ 31 ]

[ edit ] Battle of Afyonkarahisar-Eskişehir (July 1921) See also: Battle of Afyonkarahisar-Eskişehir


King Constantine decorating the victorious war flags outside Kutahya, 1921. Between 27 June and 20 July 1921, a reinforced Greek army of nine divisions launched a major offensive, the greatest thus far, against the Turkish troops commanded by Ismet Inönü on the line of Afyonkarahisar - Kutahya - Eskisehir . The plan of the Greeks was to cut Anatolia in two, as the above towns were on the main rail-lines connecting the hinterland with the coast. Eventually, after breaking the stiff Turkish defences, they occupied these strategically important centres. Instead of pursuing and decisively crippling the nationalists' military capacity, the Greek Army halted. In consequence, and despite their defeat, the Turks managed to avoid encirclement and made a strategic retreat on the east of the Sakarya River , where they organised their last line of defence.

This was the major decision that sealed the fate of the Greek campaign in Anatolia. The state and Army leadership, including King Constantine, prime minister Gounaris , and General Papoulas , met at Kutahya where they debated the future of the campaign. The Greeks, with their faltering morale rejuvenated, failed to appraise the strategic situation that favoured the defending side; instead, pressed for a 'final solution', the leadership was polarised into the risky decision to pursue the Turks and attack their last line of defence close to Ankara. The military leadership was cautious and requested for more reinforces and time to prepare, but did not go against the politicians. Only few voices supported a defensive stance, including Ioannis Metaxas . Constantine by this time had little actual power and did not argue either way. After a delay of almost a month that gave time to the Turks to organise their defence, seven of the Greek divisions crossed east of the Sakarya River.

[ edit ] Battle of Sakarya (August and September 1921) Main article: Battle of Sakarya


Greek painting depicting the Battle of Sakarya. Following the retreat of the Turkish troops under Ismet Inönü in the battle of Kutahya-Eskisehir the Greek Army advanced afresh to the Sakarya River (Sangarios in Greek), less than 100 km (62 miles) west of Ankara . Constantine's battle cry was "to Angora" and the British officers were invited, in anticipation, to a victory dinner in the city of Kemal. [ 33 ] It was envisaged that the Turkish Revolutionaries, who had consistently avoided encirclement would be drawn into battle in defence of their capital and destroyed in a battle of attrition.

Despite the Soviet help, supplies were short as the Turkish army prepared to meet the Greeks. Owners of private rifles, guns and ammunition had to surrender them to the army and every household was required to provide a pair of underclothing, sandals. [ 34 ] Meanwhile, the Turkish parliament, not happy with the performance of Ismet Inönü as the Commander of the Western Front, wanted Mustafa Kemal and Chief of General Staff Fevzi Cakmak to take control.

The advance of the Greek Army faced fierce resistance which culminated in the 21-day Battle of Sakarya (August 23– September 13, 1921). The Turkish defense positions were centred on series of heights, and the Greeks had to storm and occupy them. The Turks held certain hilltops and lost others, while some were lost and recaptured several times over. Yet the Turks had to conserve men, for the Greeks held the numerical advantage. [ 35 ] The crucial moment came when the Greek army tried to take Haymana, 40 kilometers south of Ankara but the Turks held out. Greeks also had their problems, advance into Anatolia lengthened their lines of supply and communication and they were running out of ammunition. The ferocity of the battle exhausted both sides but the Greeks were the first to withdraw to their previous lines. The thunder of cannon was plainly heard in Ankara throughout the battle.

That was the furthest in Anatolia the Greeks would advance, and within few weeks they withdrew in an orderly manner back to the lines that they had held in June. The Turkish Parliament awarded both Mustafa Kemal and Fevzi Cakmak with the title of Field Marshal for their service in this battle. To this day no other person has received this five-star general title from the Turkish Republic .

[ edit ] Stalemate (September 1921 – August 1922) Main article: Conference of London#Second stage
Having failed to reach a military solution, Greece appealed to the Allies for help, but early in 1922 Britain, France and Italy decided that the Treaty of Sèvres could not be enforced and had to be revised. In accordance with this decision, under successive treaties, the Italian and French troops evacuated their positions, leaving the Greeks exposed.

In March 1922, the Allies proposed an armistice. Feeling that he now held the strategic advantage, Mustafa Kemal declined any settlement while the Greeks remained in Anatolia and intensified his efforts to re-organise the Turkish military for the final offensive against the Greeks. At the same time, the Greeks strengthened their defensive positions, but were increasingly demoralised by the inactivity of remaining on the defensive and the prolongation of the war. The Greek government was desperate to get some military support by the British or at least secure a loan, so they developed an ill-thought plan to force diplomatically the British, by threatening their positions in Constantinople, but this was never materialised. The occupation of Constantinople would not have been an easy task at this time because of Allied troops garrisoned there.

Voices in Greece were increasingly calling for withdrawal, and demoralizing propaganda spread among the troops. Some of the removed Venizelist officers organised a movement of "National Defense" and planned a coup to secede from Athens, but never gained Venizelos endorsement and all their actions remained fruitless.

Historian Malcolm Yapp wrote that: [ 36 ]

After the failure of the March negotiations the obvious course of action for the Greeks was to withdraw to defensible lines around Izmir but at this point fantasy began to direct Greek policy, the Greeks stayed in their positions and planned a seizure of Constantinople, although this latter project was abandoned in July in the face of Allied opposition.

[ edit ] Turkish counter-attack (August 1922)


Mustafa Kemal with the Turkish revolutionaries before the counter-attack. The Turks finally launched a counter-attack on August 26, what has come to be known to the Turks as the Great Offensive (Buyuk Taarruz). The major Greek defense positions were overrun on August 26, and Afyon fell next day. On August 30, the Greek army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Dumlupınar , with half of its soldiers captured or slain and its equipment entirely lost. [ 37 ] This date is celebrated as Victory Day, a national holiday in Turkey and salvage day of Kütahya . During the Battle of Dumlupınar , Greek General Trikoupis and General Dionis were captured by the Turkish forces. [ 38 ] General Trikoupis only after his capture learned that he was recently appointed Commander-in-Chief in General Hatzianestis' place. On September 1, Mustafa Kemal issued his famous order to the Turkish army: "Armies, your first goal is the Mediterranean, Forward!" [ 37 ]

On September 2, Eskisehir was captured and the Greek government asked Britain to arrange a truce that would at least preserve its rule in Smyrna. [ 39 ] Balikesir and Bilecik were taken on September 6, and Aydin the next day. Manisa was taken on September 8. The government in Athens resigned. Turkish cavalry entered into Smyrna on September 9. Gemlik and Mudanya fell on September 11, with an entire Greek division surrendering. Expulsion of Greek Army from Anatolia was completed in September 14. As historian George Lenczowski has put it: "Once started, the offensive was a dazzling success. Within two weeks the Turks drove the Greek army back to the Mediterranean Sea." [ 40 ]

[ edit ] Re-capture of Smyrna (September 1922) [ editar ] Re-captura de Esmirna (Setembro 1922) With the possibility of social disorder once the Turkish Army occupied Smyrna, Mustafa Kemal was quick to issue a proclamation, sentencing any Turkish soldier to death who harmed non-combatants. [ 41 ] A few days before the Turkish capture of the city, Kemal's messengers distributed leaflets with this order written in Greek . Com a possibilidade de desordem social uma vez que o exército turco ocupou Esmirna, Mustafa Kemal foi rápido para emitir uma proclamação, condenando qualquer soldado turco a morte que prejudicaram não-combatentes. [41] Poucos dias antes da captura turca da cidade, mensageiros de Kemal distribuídos folhetos com esta encomenda escritas em grego . Kemal said that Ankara government can't be held responsible in the case of an occurrence of a massacre. [ 42 ] Kemal disse que o governo de Ancara não pode ser responsabilizado no caso de uma ocorrência de um massacre. [42]

During the confusion and anarchy that followed, a great portion of the city was set ablaze in the Great Fire of Smyrna , and the properties of the Greeks were pillaged. Durante a confusão e anarquia que se seguiram, uma grande parte da cidade foi incendiado na Grande Incêndio de Esmirna , e as propriedades dos gregos foram saqueados. Eye-witness reports clearly identified where the fire was started and who started it . -Relatórios de testemunhas oculares claramente identificado , onde o fogo foi iniciado e que o iniciou . Moreover, the fact that only the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city were burned, and that the Turkish quarter stood, confirms the organised burning of Smyrna by the Turkish Army despite Mustafa Kemal's proclamation. Além disso, o fato de que apenas os bairros grego e armênio da cidade foram queimados, e que o bairro turco levantou-se, confirma a queima de Esmirna organizada pelo Exército turco, apesar proclamação de Mustafa Kemal.

[ edit ] Chanak Crisis [ editar ] Crise Chanak See also: Chanak Crisis Veja também: Crise Chanak
After re-capturing Smyrna, Turkish forces headed north for Bosporus, the sea of Marmara , and the Dardanelles where the Allied garrisons were reinforced by British, French and Italian troops from Constantinople. [ 39 ] The British cabinet decided to resist the Turks if necessary at the Dardanelles and to ask for French and Italian help to enable the Greeks to remain in eastern Thrace (see Chanak Crisis ). [ 43 ] The British government also issued a request for military support from its colonies. Após a re-capturar Smyrna, as forças turcas rumo ao norte para o Bósforo, o Mar de Mármara , e do Dardanelos , onde as guarnições foram reforçadas por aliados britânicos, franceses e tropas italianas a partir de Constantinopla. [39] O governo britânico decidiu resistir os turcos se necessário na Dardanelos e pedir ajuda em francês e italiano para permitir que os gregos permanecem na Trácia Oriental (ver Chanak Crise ). [43] O governo britânico também emitiu um pedido de apoio militar a partir de suas colônias. The response from the colonies was negative (with the exception of New Zealand). A resposta das colônias foi negativa (com a excepção da Nova Zelândia). Furthermore, Italian and French forces abandoned their positions at the straits and left the British alone to face the Turks. Além disso, as forças italianas e francesas abandonaram as suas posições no estreito e deixou o britânico sozinho para enfrentar os turcos. On September 24, Kemal's troops moved into the straits zones and refused British requests to leave. Em 24 de setembro, as tropas Kemal mudou-se para as zonas estreitos e recusou o pedido britânico de sair. The British cabinet was divided on the matter but eventually any possible armed conflict was prevented. O gabinete britânico foi dividida sobre o assunto, mas acabou eventuais conflitos armados foi impedido. British General Harington , allied commander in Constantinople, kept his men from firing on Turks and warned the British cabinet against any rash adventure. O general britânico Harington , comandante aliado, em Constantinopla, continuou os seus homens a disparar sobre os turcos e alertou o gabinete britânico contra qualquer aventura erupção. The Greek fleet left Constantinople upon his request. A frota grega deixou Constantinopla sobre o seu pedido. The British finally decided to force the Greeks to withdraw behind Maritsa in Thrace. Os ingleses, finalmente, decidiu obrigar os gregos para retirar trás Maritsa na Trácia. This convinced Kemal to accept the opening of Armistice talks. Este Kemal convencido a aceitar a abertura de conversações do Armistício.

[ edit ] Resolution [ editar ] Resolução

Map of Turkey with its western borders as specified by the Treaty of Lausanne . Mapa da Turquia com as suas fronteiras ocidentais, conforme especificado pelo Tratado de Lausanne . Main articles: Armistice of Mudanya and Treaty of Lausanne Ver artigo principal: Armistício de Mudanya e Tratado de Lausanne
The Armistice of Mudanya was concluded on October 11, 1922. O Armistício de Mudanya foi celebrado em 11 de outubro de 1922. The Allies ( Britain , France , Italy ) retained control of eastern Thrace and the Bosporus . Os Aliados ( Grã-Bretanha , França , Itália ), mantiveram o controle do leste da Trácia e do Bósforo . The Greeks were to evacuate these areas. Os gregos foram para evacuar estas áreas. The agreement came into force starting October 15, 1922, one day after the Greek side agreed to sign it. O acordo entrou em vigor a partir 15 de outubro de 1922, um dia depois do lado grego concordou em assiná-lo.

The Armistice of Mudanya was followed by the Treaty of Lausanne , a significant provision of which was an exchange of populations . O Armistício de Mudanya foi seguido pelo Tratado de Lausanne , uma disposição importante dos quais foi uma troca de populações . Over one million Greek Orthodox Christians were displaced; most of them were resettled in Attica and the newly-incorporated Greek territories of Macedonia and Thrace and were exchanged with about 500,000 Muslims displaced from the Greek territories. Mais de um milhão Ortodoxa Grega cristãos foram deslocados, a maioria deles foram reassentadas em Attica e incorporada grego novos territórios da Macedónia e Trácia, e foram trocados com cerca de 500 mil muçulmanos deslocados dos territórios gregos.

[ edit ] Factors contributing to the outcome [ editar ] Fatores que contribuem para o resultado The first year of the war the Greeks were helped by the fact that British troops invaded the Straits , the richest and most populous part of Turkey, and French troops were attacking the Turkish army from the south and invading other important cities (including Adana ).This constituted as great a level of support as Greece could have asked for, so soon after WW1. O primeiro ano da guerra, os gregos foram ajudados pelo fato de que as tropas britânicas invadiram o estreito , a mais populosa e mais rica parte da Turquia, e as tropas francesas estavam a atacar o exército turco a partir do sul e invadir outras cidades importantes (incluindo Adana ). Isto constituiu como um grande nível de apoio como a Grécia poderia ter pedido para, tão logo após 1 ª Guerra Mundial. In addition, Turkish troops also had to fight with the Armenian army on a third front . Além disso, as tropas turcas também teve que lutar com o exército armênio em uma terceira frente . These fronts though were soon settled and the Kemalist forces could be turned in defence against the Greek intrusion in larger numbers. Essas frentes foram embora logo resolvido e as forças Kemalist poderia ser transformada em defesa contra a invasão grega em maior número.

The major factor contributing to the defeat of the Greeks was the withdrawal of Allied support following Autumn 1920. O principal fator a contribuir para a derrota dos gregos foi a retirada do apoio dos Aliados seguintes Outono de 1920. The reasons why the Allies shifted so drastically in their policies are complex. As razões pelas quais os Aliados mudou tão drasticamente em suas políticas são complexas. One often quoted reason for the apparent lack of support was that King Constantine was reviled by the Entente for his neutral policies during World War I, in contrast to former prime minister Venizelos who brought Greece in the war on their side. Uma razão frequentemente citada para a aparente falta de apoio era que o rei Constantino foi insultado pela Entente por suas políticas neutro durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, em contraste com o ex-primeiro-ministro Venizelos, que levou a Grécia na guerra do seu lado. Most probably this just served as a pretext . Muito provavelmente isso só serviu como um pretexto . A more plausible explanation was that exhausted from 4 years of bloodshed, no Entente power had the will to engage in further fighting to enforce the Sèvres treaty. A explicação mais plausível é que exausto de quatro anos de derramamento de sangue, nenhum poder Entente tinha a vontade de se envolver em mais lutando para fazer valer o Tratado de Sèvres. Recognising the rising power of the Turkish Republic, France and Italy preferred to settle their differences with separate agreements, abandoning their plans on the Anatolian lands. Reconhecendo o crescente poder da República Turca, França e Itália preferiram resolver as suas diferenças com os acordos separados, abandonando os seus planos nas terras da Anatólia. Even Lloyd George, who always had voiced support for the Greeks, following Venizelos's lobbying, could do little more than give promises, bound by the military and the Foreign Office ' real politik '. Mesmo Lloyd George, que sempre manifestou apoio para os gregos, na sequência de lobby Venizelos, pouco podia fazer mais do que fazer promessas, obrigado pelos militares e dos Negócios Estrangeiros Gabinete do real politik '. That left Greece to fight practically alone after 1921. Isso deixou a Grécia para lutar praticamente sozinho depois de 1921. The consequences were dire. As conseqüências foram desastrosas. Greece not only could not expect military help, but also all credit was stopped immediately. A Grécia não só não podia esperar ajuda militar, mas também todo o crédito foi interrompido imediatamente. In addition, the Allies did not allow the Greek Navy to effect blockade, which could have restricted Turkish continuing imports of food and materiel. Além disso, os aliados não permitiu que a Marinha grega para efeito de bloqueio, o que pode ter restringido as importações turcas contínua de alimentos e material.

Having adequate supplies was a constant problem for the Greek Army. Tendo o abastecimento era um problema constante para o exército grego. Although it was not lacking in men, courage or enthusiasm, it was soon lacking in nearly everything else. Embora não tenha sido falta de homens de coragem ou de entusiasmo, que logo foi carente de quase tudo o resto. Due to her poor economy and lack of manpower, Greece could not sustain long-term mobilisation and had been stretched beyond its limits. Devido à sua fraca economia e falta de pessoal, a Grécia não poderia sustentar a mobilização a longo prazo e que tinha sido esticada além dos seus limites. Very soon, the Greek Army exceeded the limits of its logistical structure and had no way of retaining such a large territory under constant attack by regular and irregular Turkish troops fighting in and for their homeland. Muito em breve, o Exército grego ultrapassou os limites de sua estrutura logística e não tinha como manter um território tão grande sob ataque constante por regulares e irregulares tropas turcas na luta e pela sua pátria. The idea that such large force could sustain offensive by mainly "living off the land" proved wrong. A idéia de que a força de grande porte poderia manter ofensiva, principalmente, "viver da terra" errados.

As the supply situation worsened for the Greeks, things improved for the Turks. Como a situação do abastecimento piorou para os gregos, as coisas melhoraram para os turcos. Initially, they enjoyed only Soviet support from abroad, in return for giving Batum back to the Soviet Union. Inicialmente, eles desfrutaram de apenas apoio soviético a partir do estrangeiro, no retorno para dar Batum de volta para a União Soviética. On August 4, Turkey's representative in Moscow, Riza Nur, sent a telegram saying that soon 60 Krupp artillery pieces, 30,000 shells, 700,000 grenades, 10,000 mines, 60,000 Romanian swords, 1.5 million captured Ottoman rifles from World War I, 1 million Russian rifles, 1 million Mannlicher rifles, as well as some older British Martini-Henry rifles and 25,000 bayonets would be delivered to the Kemalist forces. [ 31 ] The Soviets also provided monetary aid to the Turkish national movement, not to the extent that they promised, but almost in sufficient amount to make up the large deficiencies in the promised supply of arms. Em 04 de agosto, o representante da Turquia, em Moscou, Riza Nur, enviou um telegrama dizendo que em breve 60 Krupp peças de artilharia, 30 mil escudos, 700 mil granadas, 10 mil minas, 60 mil espadas romenos, 1,5 milhões de fuzis capturados Otomano desde a I Guerra Mundial, 1.000 mil fuzis russos , 1 milhão de rifles Mannlicher, bem como alguns mais velhos Martini-Henry rifles ingleses e 25.000 baionetas seriam entregues às forças kemalista. [31] Os soviéticos também forneceram ajuda monetária para o movimento nacional turco, não na medida em que eles prometeram, mas quase em quantidade suficiente para compensar as deficiências no fornecimento de grande promessa das armas. The Turks in the second phase of the war also received significant military aid from Italy and France, who threw in their lot with the Kemalists against Greece which was seen as a British client. [ 44 ] The Italians were embittered from their loss of the Smyrna mandate to the Greeks and they used their base in Antalya to arm and train Turkish troops to assist the Kemalists against the Greeks. [ 45 ] Os turcos na segunda fase da guerra, também receberam ajuda militar significativa entre Itália e França, que jogou em seu lote com os kemalistas contra a Grécia, que era visto como um cliente britânico. [44] Os italianos foram amarguradas da sua perda de Smyrna mandato para os gregos e usaram sua base em Antalya para armar e treinar as tropas turcas para ajudar os kemalistas contra os gregos. [45]

Regardless of other factors, the contrast between the motives and strategic positions of the two sides contributed decisively to the outcome. Independentemente de outros fatores, o contraste entre os motivos e as posições estratégicas dos dois lados contribuiu decisivamente para o resultado. The Turks were defending their homeland against what they perceived as an imperialist attack. Os turcos estavam defendendo sua terra contra o que eles consideravam como um ataque imperialista. Mustafa Kemal was an intelligent politician, that could present himself as revolutionary to the communists, protector of tradition and order to the conservatives, a patriot soldier to the nationalists, and a Muslim leader for the religious, so he could recruit all Turkish elements and motivate them to fight. Mustafa Kemal foi um político inteligente, que poderia se apresentar como revolucionária para os comunistas, protetor de tradição e para os conservadores, um soldado patriota aos nacionalistas, e um líder muçulmano para os religiosos, para que ele pudesse recrutar todos os elementos da Turquia e motivar -los a lutar. In his public speeches, he built up the idea of Anatolia as a "kind of fortress against all the aggressions directed to the East". Em seus discursos públicos, ele construiu a idéia de Anatolia como uma "espécie de fortaleza contra todas as agressões dirigidas ao Oriente". The struggle was not about Turkey alone but "it is the cause of the east", he said. A luta não foi só sobre a Turquia, mas "é a causa do leste", disse ele. Turkish national movement attracted sympathizers especially from the Muslims of the far east countries, who were living under colonial regimes and who saw nationalist Turkey as the only independent Muslim nation. [ 46 ] The Khilafet Committee in Bombay started a fund to help the Turkish National struggle and sent both financial aid and constant letters of encouragement: [ 46 ] movimento nacional turco atraiu simpatizantes, especialmente dos muçulmanos dos países do leste distante, que viviam sob regimes coloniais e nacionalistas que viu a Turquia como nação independente, os muçulmanos só. [46] O Comité Khilafet em Bombaim iniciou um fundo para ajudar a luta nacional turca e enviou duas cartas de apoio financeiro constante e de encorajamento: [46]

Mustafa Kemal Pasha has done wonders and you have no idea how (Muslim) people in India ( South Asia ) adore his name... Mustafa Kemal Pasha fez maravilhas e você não tem idéia de como (muçulmanos), as pessoas na Índia ( Ásia do Sul ) adoro seu nome ... We are all waiting to know the terms on which Angora offers peace to the Greeks... Estamos todos à espera de saber as condições em que Angora oferece paz para os gregos ... May the Great Allah grant victory to the Armies of Gazi Mustafa Kemal and save Turkey from her enemies... Que o Grande Deus concede a vitória aos exércitos de Gazi Mustafa Kemal e salvar Turquia a partir de seus inimigos ...
Turkish troops had a determined and competent strategic and tactical command, manned by Great War veterans. As tropas turcas tinham um comando determinado e competente estratégico e tático, tripulada por veteranos da Grande Guerra. They also enjoyed the advantage of being in defence, executed in the new form of 'area defence'. Eles também gostaram de a vantagem de estar na defesa, executado em uma nova forma de "defesa da área. At the climax of the Greek offensive, Mustafa Kemal commanded his troops: [ 47 ] No clímax da ofensiva grega, Mustafa Kemal ordenou a seus soldados: [47]

There is no such thing as a line of defence. Não existe tal coisa como uma linha de defesa. Only a surface to defend. Apenas uma superfície de defender. That surface consists of the entire Fatherland. Essa superfície é constituído pelo Pátria inteira. Not one inch of our country can be abandoned unless drenched with the blood of its people. Nem um centímetro do nosso país pode ser abandonado, a menos encharcada com o sangue de seu povo.
The main defense doctrine of the First World War was holding on a line [ citation needed ] , so this command was unorthodox for its time. A doutrina de defesa principal da Primeira Guerra Mundial estava segurando em uma linha [ carece de fontes? ], então este comando foi pouco ortodoxo para a época. However it proved successful. No entanto, foi bem sucedida.

On the other side, the Greek defeat directly derived from gradual loss of momentum, the National Schism and poor strategic planning of their ill-conceived advance in depth. Por outro lado, a derrota grega deriva directamente de perda gradual de dinamismo, com o cisma nacional e planejamento estratégico pobres de seu avanço mal concebida em profundidade. The Greek Army was fighting on the background of constant political turmoil and division at the home front. O exército grego estava lutando no fundo da instabilidade política constante e divisão na frente de casa. Despite the majority belief into the "moral advantage" of irridentism against the "old enemies", they were not few among them that could not see the point of continuing and they would rather preferred to be back to their homes. Apesar da crença maioria na "vantagem moral" de irridentism contra os "antigos inimigos", não foram poucos dentre eles que não podia ver o ponto de continuar e eles preferem preferiu voltar para suas casas. The fact that thousands of young men from old Greece were being sacrificed for Asia Minor, while recruitment from the local population was minimal, also caused resentment. O fato de que milhares de jovens da Grécia antiga estavam sendo sacrificados para a Ásia Menor, enquanto o recrutamento da população local era mínima, também causou ressentimentos. The Greeks were advancing without clear strategic targets, wearily following months of bitter fighting and long marches. Os gregos estavam avançando sem metas claras e estratégicas, cansado após meses de luta amarga e longas marchas. The main strategy was to manage a fatal blow that would cripple the Turkish military for ever and make the Treaty of Sèvres enforceable. A principal estratégia era conseguir um golpe fatal que deixaria aleijados os militares turcos para sempre e fazer o Tratado de Sèvres executória. This strategy might have made some sense back then, but in hindsight it proved a fatal miscalculation. Esta estratégia poderia ter feito algum sentido na época, mas, em retrospectiva revelou-se um erro fatal. The Greeks were instead attacking against an enemy that could continuously retreat to renewed defensive lines, avoiding encirclement and destruction. Os gregos eram, em vez de atacar contra um inimigo que poderia continuamente retiro para renovar linhas de defesa, evitando o cerco e destruição.

[ edit ] Atrocities and claims of ethnic cleansing by both sides [ editar ] Atrocidades e pedidos de limpeza étnica por ambos os lados [ edit ] Greek massacres of Turks [ editar ] massacres grega de turcos British historian Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that there were organized atrocities since the Greek occupation of Smyrna on the 15 May 1919. O historiador inglês Arnold J. Toynbee escreveu que havia organizado atrocidades desde a ocupação grega de Smyrna em 15 de maio de 1919. Toynbee also stated that he and his wife were witnesses to the atrocities perpetrated by Greeks in the Yalova, Gemlik, and Izmit areas and they not only obtained abundant material evidence in the shape of "burnt and plundred houses, recent corpses, and terror stricken survivors" but also witnessed robbery by Greek civilians and arsons by Greek soldiers in uniform in the act of perpetration. [ 48 ] Toynbee wrote: [ 49 ] Toynbee também afirmou que ele e sua esposa foram testemunhas das atrocidades cometidas pelos gregos nas áreas Yalova, Gemlik, e Izmit e eles só não obteve provas materiais abundantes na forma de "casas queimadas e plundred, cadáveres recentes, e os sobreviventes aterrorizados mas também testemunhou o roubo de grego e civis incêndios causados por soldados gregos em uniforme no ato do cometimento. " [48] Toynbee escreveu: [49]

"No sooner had they landed than they began a ruthless warfare against the Turkish population, not omitting the commission of atrocities in the worst Near Eastern manner, they laid waste the fertile Maender Valley, and forced thousands of homeless Turks to take refuge beyond the occupied area". "Tão logo eles desembarcaram do que eles começaram uma guerra implacável contra a população turca, sem omitir a prática de atrocidades em pior forma do Próximo Oriente, que devastaram o vale fértil Maender, e obrigaram milhares de desabrigados turcos a refugiar-se para além da ocupação área ".

Historian Taner Akcam noted that a British officer claimed: [ 50 ] Historiador Taner Akcam observou que um oficial britânico afirmou: [50]

"The National forces were established solely for the purpose of fighting the Greeks...The Turks are willing to remain under the control of any other state...There was not even an organized resistance at the time of the Greek occupation. Yet the Greeks are persisting in their oppression, and they have continued to burn villages, kill Turks and rape and kill women and young girls and throttle to death children". "As forças nacionais foram criados exclusivamente para a finalidade de combater os gregos ... Os turcos estão dispostos a permanecer sob o controle de qualquer outro estado ... Não houve sequer uma resistência organizada, no momento da ocupação grega. No entanto, o Os gregos são persistentes em sua opressão, e eles continuaram a queimar aldeias, os turcos matar e estuprar e matar mulheres e meninas ea borboleta para as crianças da morte ".

Inter-Allied commission in the Yalova-Gemlik peninsula, in their report of the 23rd May 1921, during the Greek occupation of western Anatolia, wrote that: [ 51 ] Inter-aliada na comissão-Gemlik península Yalova, no seu relatório de 23 de maio de 1921, durante a ocupação grega da Anatólia ocidental, escreveu que: [51]

"A distinct and regular method appears to have been followed in the destruction of villages, group by group, for the last two months, which destruction has even reached the neighbourhood of the Greek headquarters. The members of the Commission consider that, in the part of the kazas of Yalova and Gemlik occupied by the Greek army, there is a systematic plan of destruction of Turkish villages and extinction of the Muslim population. This plan is being carried out by Greek and Armenian bands, which appear to operate under Greek instructions and sometimes even with the assistance of detachments of regular troops". "Um método diferenciado e regular parece ter sido seguido na destruição de aldeias, grupo por grupo, durante os últimos dois meses, que chegou até a destruição do bairro da sede do grego. Os membros da Comissão consideram que, na parte das Kazas de Yalova e Gemlik ocupada pelo exército grego, não há um plano sistemático de destruição de aldeias turcas e extinção da população muçulmana. Este plano está sendo realizado por bandas grego e armênio, que parecem operar sob as ordens gregas e às vezes até com a ajuda de destacamentos de tropas regulares ".

Inter Allied commission also stated that the destruction of villages and the disappearance of the Muslim population might have at its objective to create in this region a political situation favourable to the Greek Government. [ 51 ] Inter comissão Aliados também afirmou que a destruição de aldeias eo desaparecimento da população muçulmana pode ter ao seu objectivo de criar na região uma situação política favorável ao Governo grego. [51]

M. Gehri, the representative of the Geneva International Red Cross who accompanied the Inter-Allied Commission wrote as follows: [ 52 ] M. Gehri, o representante da Geneva International da Cruz Vermelha , que acompanhou a Comissão Inter-aliada escreveu o seguinte: [52]

"...The Greek army of occupation have been employed in the extermination of the Muslim population of the Yalova-Gemlik peninsula. The facts established -burning of villages, massacres, terror of the inhabitants, coincidence of place and date- leave no room for doubt in regard to this. The atrocities which we have seen, or of which we have seen the material evidence, were the work of irregular bands of armed civilians(tcheti) and of organised units of the regular army...Instead of being disarmed and broken up, the bands have been assisted in their activities and have collaborated hand in hand with organised units of regulars". "... O exército grego de ocupação têm sido utilizados no extermínio da população muçulmana da península Yalova-Gemlik. Factos apurados de queima de aldeias, massacres, o terror dos habitantes, a coincidência do local e data não deixam margem para dúvidas em relação a isso. atrocidades que vimos, ou de que vimos a evidência material, se o trabalho de bandas irregulares de civis armados (tcheti) e de unidades organizadas do exército regular ... Em vez de ser desarmada e dispersa, as bandas foram assistidas em suas atividades e têm colaborado de mãos dadas com unidades organizadas de frequentadores ".

Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that they obtained convincing evidence that similar atrocities had been started in wide areas all over the remainder of the Greek occupied territories since June 1921. [ 48 ] Toynbee argued that: " the situation of the Turks in Smyrna City had become what could be called without exaggeration a 'reign of terror', it was to be inferred that their treatment in the country districts had grown worse in proportion." [ 53 ] Arnold J. Toynbee escreveu que obtiveram evidências convincentes de que as atrocidades semelhantes foram iniciados em vastas áreas em todo o restante dos territórios ocupados desde junho de grego de 1921. [48] Toynbee argumentou que: "a situação dos turcos em Esmirna City havia se tornado que se poderia chamar, sem exagero um "reinado de terror", era para se inferir que o seu tratamento nos distritos do país havia piorado na mesma proporção. " [53]

[ edit ] Greek scorched-earth policy [ editar ] de terra arrasada política grega According to a number of sources, the retreating Greek army carried out a scorched-earth policy while fleeing from Anatolia during the final phase of the war. [ 54 ] Historian of the Middle East, Sydney Nettleton Fisher wrote that: "The Greek army in retreat pursued a burned-earth policy and committed every known outrage against defenceless Turkish villagers in its path" [ 55 ] a um número de fontes, a retirada do exército grego realizado uma política de terra arrasada, enquanto fogem da Anatólia durante a fase final da guerra. Segundo [54] O historiador do Oriente Médio, Sydney Nettleton Fisher escreveu que: "O exército grego em Retiro prosseguido uma política de terra queimada e ultraje cometido todos os conhecidos contra indefesos moradores turco no seu caminho " [55]

James Loder Park, the US Vice-Consul in Constantinople at the time, who toured much of the devastated area immediately after the Greek evacuation, described the situation in the surrounding cities and towns of İzmir he has seen, as follows: [ 56 ] Loder James Park, os EUA Vice-Cônsul em Constantinopla, na época, que percorreu grande parte da área devastada, imediatamente após a evacuação grego, descreveu a situação nas cidades e vilas ao redor de Izmir ele viu, como segue: [56]

" Manisa ...almost completely wiped out by fire...10,300 houses, 15 mosques, 2 baths, 2,278 shops, 19 hotels, 26 villas...[destroyed]. Cassaba (present day Turgutlu ) was a town of 40,000 souls, 3,000 of whom were non-Muslims. Of these 37,000 Turks only 6,000 could be accounted for among the living, while 1,000 Turks were known to have been shot or burned to death. Of the 2,000 buildings that constituted the city, only 200 remained standing. Ample testimony was available to the effect that the city was systematically destroyed by Greek soldiers, assisted by a number of Greek and Armenian civilians. Kerosene and gasoline were freely used to make the destruction more certain, rapid and complete. Alasehir, hand pumps were used to soak the walls of the buildings with Kerosene. As we examined the ruins of the city, we discovered a number of skulls and bones, charred and black, with remnants of hair and flesh clinging to them. Upon our insistence a number of graves having a fresh-made appearance were actually opened for us as we were fully satisfied that these bodies were not more than four weeks old.[the time of the Greek retreat through Alasehir]" " Manisa ... quase que completamente dizimado pelo fogo ... 10.300 casas, 15 mesquitas, 2 banheiros, 2.278 lojas, 19 hotéis, 26 villas ... [destruída]. Cassaba (hoje Turgutlu ) era uma cidade de 40.000 almas , 3.000 dos quais eram não-muçulmanos. Destes Turks 37.000 apenas 6.000 poderiam ser contabilizados entre os vivos, enquanto 1.000 turcos eram conhecidos por terem sido baleados ou queimados até a morte. Dos 2.000 edifícios que constituíam a cidade, apenas 200 permaneceram em pé . amplo testemunho estava disponível para o efeito que a cidade foi sistematicamente destruída por soldados gregos, assistidos por um número de civis grego e armênio. querosene e gasolina foram livremente usado para fazer a destruição de mais certo, rápido e completo. Alasehir, bombas manuais foram usadas para umedecer as paredes dos edifícios com querosene. Como examinamos as ruínas da cidade, descobrimos uma série de crânios e ossos carbonizados e preto, com cabelos e restos de carne, o apego a eles. Após a nossa insistência de um número de sepulturas ter um aspecto fresco feito foram realmente abertas para nós, pois estavam plenamente convencidos de que estes órgãos não eram mais do que quatro semanas de idade. [o tempo do retiro grega através Alasehir] "

Consul Park concluded: [ 56 ] Cônsul Park concluiu: [56]

"1. The destruction of the interior cities visited by our party was carried out by Greeks. "1. A destruição das cidades do interior visitados por nossa festa foi realizada pelos gregos.
2. 2. The percentages of buildings destroyed in each of the last four cities referred to were: Manisa 90 percent, Cassaba ( Turgutlu ) 90 percent, Alaşehir 70 percent, Salihli 65 percent. As percentagens de edifícios destruídos em cada um dos últimos quatro cidades referidas foram: Manisa 90 por cento, Cassaba ( Turgutlu ) 90 por cento, Alasehir 70 por cento, Salihli 65 por cento.
3. 3. The burning of these cities was not desultory, nor intermittent, nor accidental, but well planned and thoroughly organized. A queima destas cidades não era inconstante, nem intermitente, nem acidental, mas bem planejado e bem organizado.
4. 4. There were many instances of physical violence, most of which was deliberate and wanton. Houve muitos casos de violência física, a maioria dos quais foi deliberada e arbitrária. Without complete figures, which were impossible to obtain, it may safely be surmised that 'atrocities' committed by retiring Greeks numbered well into thousands in the four cities under consideration. Sem números completos, que eram impossíveis de obter, pode-se supor com segurança que "atrocidades" cometidas pelos gregos aposentar numeradas bem em milhares de pessoas em quatro cidades em análise. These consisted of all three of the usual type of such atrocities, namely murder, torture and rape." Estes consistiram em todos os três do tipo usual de tais atrocidades, ou seja, assassinato, tortura e estupro. "

Kinross wrote: [ 57 ] Kinross escreveu: [57]

"Already most of the towns in its path were in ruins. One third of Ushak no longer existed. Alashehir was no more than a dark scorched cavity, defacing the hillside. Village after village had been reduced to an ash-heap. Out of the eighteen thousand buildings in the historic holy city of Manisa , only five hundred remained." "Já a maioria das cidades em seu caminho estavam em ruínas. Um terço dos Ushak já não existia. Alashehir não era mais que uma queimada cavidade escura, desfigurando a encosta. aldeia após aldeia tinha sido reduzida a um montão de cinzas. Fora da dezoito mil edifícios na cidade histórica de santo Manisa , apenas quinhentos permaneceu. "

It is estimated some 3,000 lives had been lost in the burning of Alaşehir alone. [ 58 ] In one of the examples of the Greek atrocities during the retreat, on 14 February 1922, in the Turkish village of Karatepe in Aydin Vilayeti, after being surrounded by the Greeks, all the inhabitants were put into the mosque, then the mosque was burned. Estima-se cerca de 3.000 vidas foram perdidas na queima de Alasehir sozinho. [58] Em um dos exemplos de atrocidades grega durante a retirada, em 14 de fevereiro de 1922, na aldeia turca de Karatepe em Aydin Vilayeti, depois de ser cercado pelos gregos, todos os moradores foram colocados em uma mesquita, em seguida, a mesquita foi incendiada. The few who escaped fire were shot. [ 59 ] The Italian consul, M. Miazzi, reported that he had just visited a Turkish village, where Greeks had slaughtered some sixty women and children. Os poucos que escaparam do fogo foram baleados. [59] O cônsul italiano, M. Miazzi, relatou que havia acabado de visitar uma aldeia turca, onde gregos tinham abatido alguns sessenta mulheres e crianças. This report was then corroborated by Captain Kocher, the French consul. [ 60 ] Este relatório foi, então, corroborada pelo capitão Kocher, o cônsul francês. [60]

[ edit ] Turkish massacres of Greeks and Armenians [ editar ] massacres turcos de gregos e armênios Main articles: Greek genocide and Armenian genocide Ver artigo principal: genocídio grega e genocídio arménio
The British historian and journalist Arnold J. Toynbee stated that when he toured the region he saw numerous Greek villages that had been burned to the ground. Toynbee also stated that the Turkish troops had clearly, individually and deliberately burned down each house in these villages, pouring petrol on them and taking care to ensure that they were totally destroyed. [ 61 ] There were massacres throughout 1920-1923, the period of the Turkish War of Independence , especially of Armenians in the East and the South, and against the Greeks in the Black Sea Region. [ 62 ] There was also significant continuity between the organizers of the massacres between 1915–1917 and 1919-1921 in Eastern Anatolia. [ 63 ]

A Turkish governor, Ebubekir Hazim Tepeyran in the Sivas Province said in 1919 that the massacres were so horrible that he could not bear to report them. He was referring to the atrocities committed against Greeks in the Black Sea region, and according to the official tally 11,181 Greeks were murdered in 1921 by the Central Army under the command of Nurettin Pasha (who is infamous for the killing of Archbishop Chrysostomos ). [ 64 ] Some parliamentary deputies demanded Nurettin Pasha to be sentenced to death and it was decided to put him on trial although the trial was later revoked by the intervention of Mustafa Kemal. Taner Akcam wrote that according to one newspaper, Nurettin Pasha had suggested to kill all the remaining Greek and Armenian populations in Anatolia, a suggestion rejected by Mustafa Kemal. [ 64 ]

There were also several contemporaneous Western newspaper articles reporting the atrocities committed by Turkish forces against Christian population living in Anatolia, mainly Greek and Armenian civilians. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ] [ 70 ] For instance, according to the London based Times : "The Turkish authorities frankly state it is their deliberate intention to let all the Greeks die, and their actions support their statement." [ 65 ] An Irish paper, the Belfast News Letter wrote: "The appalling tale of barbarity and cruelty now being practiced by the Angora Turks is part of a systematic policy of extermination of Christian minorities in Asia Minor. " [ 70 ] According to the Christian Science Monitor , the Turks felt that they needed to murder their Christian minorities due to Christian superiority in terms of industriousness and the consequent Turkish feelings of jealously and inferiority, The paper wrote: "The result has been to breed feelings of alarm and jealously in the minds of the Turks which in later years have driven them to depression. They believe that they cannot compete with their Christian subjects in the arts of peace and that the Christians and Greeks especially are too industrious and too well educated as rivals. Therefore from time to time they have striven to try and redress the balance by expulsion and massacre. That has been the position generations past in Turkey again if the Great powers are callous and unwise enough to attempt to perpetuate Turkish misrule over Christians." [ 71 ] According to the newspaper the Scotsman, on August 18 of 1920, in the Feival district of Karamusal, South-East of Ismid in Asia Minor, the Turks massacred 5,000 Christians. [ 66 ] There were also massacres during this period against Armenians, continuing the policies of the 1915 Armenian Genocide according to some Western newspapers. [ 72 ] On February 25, 1922 24 Greek villages in the Pontus region were burnt to the ground. An American newspaper, the Atlanta Observer wrote: "The smell of the burning bodies of women and children in Pontus" said the message "comes as a warning of what is awaiting the Christian in Asia Minor after the withdrawal of the Hellenic army." [ 67 ] In the first few months of 1922, 10,000 Greeks were killed by advancing Kemalist forces, according to Belfast News Letter . [ 65 ] [ 70 ] According to Philadelphia Evening Bulletin The Turks continued the practice of slavery, seizing women and children for their harems aand raping numerous women. [ 65 ] [ 65 ] [ 70 ] [ 73 ] Christian Science Monitor wrote that Turkish authorities also prevented missionaries and humanitarian aid groups from assisting Greek civilians who had their homes burned, the Turkish authorities leaving these people to die despite abundant aid. The Christian Science Monitor wrote: "the Turks are trying to exterminate the Greek population with more vigor than they exercised towards the Armenians in 1915." [ 68 ]

Atrocities against Pontic Greeks living in the Pontus region is recognized in Greece and Cyprus [ 74 ] as the Pontian Genocide . According to a proclamation made in 2002 by the then-governor of New York (where a sizeable population of Greek Americans resides), George Pataki (of Hungarian descent [ 75 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] ), Greeks of Asia Minor endured immeasurable cruelty during a Turkish government-sanctioned systematic campaign to displace them; destroying Greek towns and villages and slaughtering additional hundreds of thousands of civilians in areas where Greeks composed a majority, as on the Black Sea coast, Pontus, and areas around Smyrna; those who survived were exiled from Turkey and today they and their descendants live throughout the Greek diaspora . [ 78 ]

According to the population exchange treaty signed by both the Turkish and Greek governments, Greek orthodox citizens of Turkey and Muslim citizens residing in Greece were subjected to the population exchange between these two countries. Approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Turkey and about half a million Muslims from Greece were uprooted from their homelands. M. Norman Naimark claimed that this treaty was the last part of an ethnic cleansing campaign to create an ethnically pure homeland for the Turks [ 79 ] Historian Dinah Shelton similarly wrote that: "the Lausanne Treaty completed the forcible transfer of the country's Greeks " . [ 80 ]

Larger part of the Greek population had been forced to leave their ancestral homelands of Ionia , Pontus and Eastern Thrace between 1914-1922. These refugees, as well as the Greek Americans with origins in Anatolia, were not allowed to return to their homelands after the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne .

[ edit ] See also [ editar ] Ver também Population exchange between Greece and Turkey
Aftermath of World War I Rescaldo da I Guerra Mundial
Turkish-Armenian War
Franco-Turkish War
Menemen massacre
Chronology of the Turkish War of Independence
Greco-Turkish relations
Timeline of modern Greek history
Greek refugees
Ottoman Greeks
Greek genocide
Armenian genocide
[ edit ] Footnotes [ editar ] Notas de Rodapé ^ History of the Campaign of Minor Asia, General Staff of Army , Directorate of Army History, Athens, 1967, page 140: on June 11 (OC) 6,159 officers, 193,994 soldiers (=200,153 men)
^ Sabahattin Selek, Anadolu İhtilâli , Kastaş Yayınları; İstanbul, 2004, ISBN 9757639931 [ page needed ]
^ http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/golf/greekturk1921.htm
^ History of the Campaign of Minor Asia, General Staff of Army , Directorate of Army History, Athens, 1967
^ Sabahattin Selek, Anadolu Ihtilali Kastaş Yayınları; İstanbul, 2004 [ page needed ]
^ "(Turkish), page 13" (PDF) . http://www.turksolu.org/pdf/sehidinesahipcik/sehidinesahipcik.pdf . Retrieved 2010-07-28 . Obtido 2010/07/28. [ unreliable source? ] [ fonte confiável? ]
^ Steven W. Sowards (2004-05-07). "Greek nationalism, the 'Megale Idea' and Venizelism to 1923" . Twenty-Five Lectures on Modern Balkan History (The Balkans in the Age of Nationalism) . http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect14.htm . Retrieved 2008-09-03 . Visitada em 2008-09-03.
^ Woodhouse, CM The Story of Modern Greece , Faber and Faber, London (1968), p. 204 204
^ Arnold J. Toynbee and Kenneth P. Kirkwood, Turkey , 1926, London: Ernest Benn, p. 94 94
^ ( Shaw 1977 , pp. 239–241)
^ Area Handbook for the Republic of Turkey — Page 79 by Thomas Duval Roberts
^ Lowe, Cedric James; Dockrill, Michael L. (2002). The Mirage of Power: Volume Two: British Foreign Policy 1914-22 . Routledge. Routledge. p. p. 367. ISBN 9780415265973 . http://books.google.com/?id=DEYNKvzs14IC&pg=PP1&dq=the+Mirage+of+Power .
^ "Not War Against Islam-Statement by Greek Prime Minister" in The Scotsman , June 29, 1920, pg.5.
^ The Encyclopædia Britannica , Vol.7, Edited by Hugh Chisholm, (1911), 3; Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire... ^ A Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol.7, editado por Hugh Chisholm, (1911), 3; Constantinopla, a capital do Império Turco ...
^ Britannica, Istanbul : When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved to Ankara, and Constantinople was officially renamed Istanbul in 1930.
^ Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922 By Michael Llewellyn Smith, p. 35 35
^ Arnold J. Toynbee, The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1922, pp. 312-313
^ a b Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922 , London: Hurst & Company, 1998, ISBN 0472109901 , pg. 3. 3.
^ ( Kinross 1960 , p. 154)
^ ( Shaw 1977 , p. 342)
^ Lowe, Cedric James; Dockrill, Michael L. (2002). [{ http://books.google.com/?id=DEYNKvzs14IC&pg=PP1&dq=the+Mirage+of+Power The Mirage of Power: Volume Two: British Foreign Policy 1914–22 ]. Routledge. Routledge. p. p. 367. ISBN 9780415265973 . { http://books.google.com/?id=DEYNKvzs14IC&pg=PP1&dq=the+Mirage+of+Power .
^ Yurt Ansiklopedisi, 1982, p.4273, 4274
^ Fleming, Katherine Elizabeth. Greece--a Jewish history [ page needed ]
^ Hellenic Army General Staff, 1957, Ο Ελληνικός Στρατός εις την Σμύρνην, p. 56 56
^ a b Andrew Mango, Atatürk , John Murray, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7195-65922 , p. 217. 217.
^ Sunga, Lyal S. (1992-01-01). Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-1453-0 .
^ Bernhardsson, Magnus (2005-12-20). Reclaiming a Plundered Past: archaeology and nation building in modern Iraq . University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70947-1 .
^ http://www2.mfa.gr/NR/rdonlyres/3E053BC1-EB11-404A-BA3E-A4B861C647EC/0/1923_lausanne_treaty.doc ; DOC
^ ( Kinross 1960 , p. 233)
^ "Venizelos and the Asia Minor Catastrophe" . http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/venizelos.htm . Retrieved 2008-09-03 . Visitada em 2008-09-03. [ unreliable source? ]
^ a b c Kapur, H. Soviet Russia and Asia, 1917–1927 [ page needed ]
^ History , Antalya City Website
^ ( Kinross 1960 , p. 275)
^ ( Shaw 1977 , p. 360)
^ ( Kinross 1960 , p. 277)
^ ME Yapp, The making of the modern Near East, 1792–1923 , London; New York: Longman, 1987, pg. 319, ISBN 0582493803
^ a b ( Shaw 1977 , p. 362)
^ ( Kinross 1960 , p. 315)
^ a b ( Shaw 1977 , p. 363)
^ Lenczowski, George. The Middle East in World Affairs , Cornell University Press, New York, 1962, pg. 107. 107.
^ Glenny, M. The Balkans [ page needed ]
^ James, Edwin L. " Kemal Won't Insure Against Massacres ," New York Times , September 11, 1922.
^ Walder, David. The Chanak Affair , London, 1969, p. 281. 281.
^ "A Walk Through Antalya's History" . http://www.antalya-ws.com/english/location/antalya/whistory.asp .
^ Smith, Michael (1999-01-15). Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922 . University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08569-7 .
^ a b ( Kinross 1960 , p. 298)
^ "Ankara – The Mausoleum of Atatürk" . Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism . http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030EF3642F2144BBDA75 . Retrieved 2008-09-02 . Obtido 2008/09/02. [ dead link ] [ mortos link ]
^ a b ( Toynbee 1922 , p. 260)
^ Arnold J. Toynbee and Kenneth P. Kirkwood, Turkey , 1926, London: Ernest Benn, pg. 92. 92.
^ ( Akcam 2006 , p. 318)
^ a b ( Toynbee 1922 , p. 284)
^ ( Toynbee 1922 , p. 285)
^ ( Toynbee 1922 , p. 318)
^ Sydney Nettleton Fisher, The Middle East: a history, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969, p. 386 386
^ Fisher, p. ^ Fisher, p. 386 386
^ a b US Vice-Consul James Loder Park to Secretary of State , Smyrna , 11 April 1923. US archives US767.68116/34
^ ( Kinross 1960 , p. 318)
^ Mango, Atatürk , p. 343. 343.
^ Letter from Arnold Toynbee to The Times , 6 April 1922, transmitting a letter from Turkey of 9 March 1922
^ FO 371-7898, no. E10383, Report on the Nationalist Offensive in Anatolia by Major HG Howell, British Member of the Inter-Allied commission proceeding to Bourssa. Istanbul, 15 September 1922
^ ( Toynbee 1922 , p. 152)
^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Metropolitan Books 2006 p.322
^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Metropolitan Books 2006 p.326
^ a b Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Metropolitan Books 2006 p.323
^ a b c d e "Turk's Insane Savagery: 10,000 Greeks Dead" in The Times, Friday, May 5, 1922
^ a b "5,000 Christians Massacred, Turkish Nationalist Conspiracy" in The Scotsman August 24, 1920
^ a b "24 Greek Villages are Given to the Fire" in the Atlanta Constitution March 30, 1922
^ a b "Near East Relief Prevented from Helping Greeks" in the Christian Science Monitor July 13, 1922
^ "Turks will be Turks" in the New York Times September 16, 1922
^ a b c d "More Turkish Atrocities" in Belfast News Letter, Thursday May 16, 1922
^ "Turkish Rule over Christian Peoples" in the Christian Science Monitor February 1, 1919
^ "Allies to Act at Once on Armenian Outrages" in the New York Times February 29, 1920.
^ "Girls died to escape Turks" in the
^ Cyprus Press Office, New York City
^ "Ancestry of George Pataki" . Wargs.com . http://www.wargs.com/political/pataki.html . Retrieved 2010-07-28 . Obtido 2010/07/28.
^ Siegel, Joel (2005-05-21). "George Pataki for President? - Governor Pataki's Political Ambitions" . Nymag.com . http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/politics/newyork/features/9494/ . Retrieved 2010-07-28 . Obtido 2010/07/28.
^ Steve Toth (2010-03-16). "George Pataki — Celebrities, famous people" . TravelToHungary.com . http://traveltohungary.com/english/articles/article.php?id=99 . Retrieved 2010-07-28 . Obtido 2010/07/28.
^ Resolution of the State of New York, October 6th, 2002; NY State Governor George E. Pataki Proclaims October 6th, 2002 as the 80th Anniversary of the Persecution of Greeks of Asia Minor
^ Naimark Norman M., Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe , p.47
^ Shelton Dinah , Encyclopaedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity , p.303
[ edit ] References [ editar ] Referências Akçam, Taner (2006). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility . New York: Metropolitan Books.
Milton, Giles (2008). Paradise Lost: Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of Islam's City of Tolerance (Paperback ed.). London: Sceptre; Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. ISBN 9780340962343 . http://books.google.com/?id=n4B4NwAACAAJ&dq=isbn%3A9780340962343 . Retrieved 2010-07-28 . Obtido 2010/07/28.
Shaw, Stanford Jay ; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey . Cambridge University Press .
Toynbee, Arnold J (1922). The Western question in Greece and Turkey: A study in the contact of civilisations . Boston: Houghton Mifflin . Boston: Houghton Mifflin .
Kinross, Lord (1960). Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation . ISBN 0297820362 .
Papatheu, Katerina (2007). Greci e turchi. Appunti fra letteratura, musica e storia . Roma-Catania: Bonanno Editore.
[ edit ] In literature and the arts Tasos Athanasiadis , The children of Niobe (Τα Παιδιά της Νιόβης), novel which was later serialized on Greek television
Louis de Bernieres , Birds Without Wings , 2004
Thea Halo , Not Even my Name , memoir 2000
Ernest Hemingway , On the Quai at Smyrna , collected in In Our Time , 1925.
Jeffrey Eugenides , Middlesex , novel (won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2003)
Panos Karnezis , The Maze novel 2004 shortlisted for 2004 Whitbread First Novel Award.
Elia Kazan , America, America film 1964 Oscar nominated for Best Picture
Elia Kazan , Beyond the Aegean , a 1994 novel
Nikos Kazantzakis , Christ Recrucified (Ο Χριστός ανασταυρώνεται), novel 1948
Bohuslav Martinů , The Greek Passion (Řecké pašije), Opera 1961
Dido Sotiriou, Farewell Anatolia (Ματωμένα Χώματα, 1962), Kedros 1997
[show]v • d • e v • d • e Turkish War of Independence

Concepts Conceitos Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire · Turkish revolutionaries · Turkish National Movement · Establishment of movement · Sentinel Association · Khilafat Movement · King-Crane Commission

Establishment Estabelecimento Amasya Circular · Erzurum Congress · Balıkesir Congress · Alaşehir Congress · Sivas Congress · Amasya Protocol · Grand National Assembly

Issues Questões Menemen massacre · Great Fire of Smyrna · Chanak Crisis · Population exchange · Personae non gratae · Malta exiles

Campaigns Campanhas British (Allies) Istanbul Istambul

Revolts Kuva-i Inzibatiye · Revolt of Ahmet Anzavur · Koçkiri Rebellion

Armenian Armênio Oltu · Sarıkamış · Kars · Alexandropol

French Francês Maras · Antep · Urfa

Greek Grego İzmir · Aydın · 1st İnönü · 2nd İnönü · Eskişehir · Sakarya · Dumlupinar


Agreements Acordos Allies Aliados Conference of London · San Remo conference · Paris Peace Conference

Ottoman Otomano Misak-ı Milli · Treaty of Sèvres

National Assembly Assembleia Nacional Treaty of Alexandropol · Treaty of Moscow (1921) · Conference of London · Cilicia Peace Treaty · Treaty of Ankara (1921) · Treaty of Kars · Conference of London · Armistice of Mudanya · Conference of Lausanne · Treaty of Lausanne


Timeline · Atatürk's leadership



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Texto original em inglês:
For example, the fact that the Young Turks was not in power at the time of the war makes such a justification less straightforward.
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