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7584 - A PRIMEIRA GUERRA MUNDIAL DE 1914

World War I I Guerra Mundial From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
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This article is about the major war of 1914–18. Este artigo é sobre a grande guerra de 1914-18. For other uses, see World War One (disambiguation) . Para outros usos, veja a Primeira Guerra Mundial (desambiguação) .
"Great War" redirects here. "Grande Guerra" redireciona para cá. For other uses, see Great War (disambiguation) . Para outros usos, consulte Grande Guerra (desambiguação) .
World War I I Guerra Mundial

Clockwise from top: Trenches on the Western Front ; a British Mark IV Tank crossing a trench; Royal Navy battleship HMS Irresistible sinking after striking a mine at the Battle of the Dardanelles ; a Vickers machine gun crew with gas masks , and German Albatros D.III biplanes No sentido horário, de cima: Trincheiras na Frente Ocidental , um britânico Mark IV tanque cruzando uma trincheira; Royal Navy encouraçado HMS Irresistible afundando após ter embatido numa mina na batalha dos Dardanelos , uma metralhadora Vickers tripulação com máscaras de gás , eo alemão Albatros D. III biplanos
Date Data 28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918 ( Armistice ) 28 de julho de 1914 - 11 de Novembro de 1918 ( Armistício )
Treaty of Versailles signed 28 June 1919 Tratado de Versalhes, assinado 28 de junho de 1919

Location Localização Europe, Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific Islands , China and off the coast of South America Europa, África, Oriente Médio, o Ilhas do Pacífico , na China e na costa da América do Sul
Result Resultado Allied victory Aliado a vitória
End of the German , Russian , Ottoman , and Austro-Hungarian empires Fim do Alemão , Russo , Otomano e Austro-Húngaro impérios
Formation of new countries in Europe and the Middle East Formação de novos países na Europa e no Oriente Médio
Transfer of German colonies and regions of the former Ottoman Empire to other powers Transferência de colônias alemãs e regiões do antigo Império Otomano para outros poderes
Establishment of the League of Nations . Criação da Liga das Nações . ( more... ) ( mais ... )


Belligerents Os beligerantes
Allied (Entente) Powers Aliado (Entente) Poderes

France França
British Empire Império Britânico
Russian Empire (1914–17) Império Russo (1914-1917)
United States (1917–18) Estados Unidos (1917-18)
Italy (1915–18) Itália (1915-1918)
Japan Japão
Belgium Bélgica
Serbia Sérvia
Romania (1916–18) Roménia (1916-1918)
Greece (1917–18) Grécia (1917-18)
Portugal (1916–18) Portugal (1916-18)
Montenegro (1914–16) Montenegro (1914-1916)
Brazil (1917–18) Brasil (1917-18)
and others e outros
Central Powers Central Poderes
German Empire Império Alemão
Austria-Hungary Áustria-Hungria
Ottoman Empire Império Otomano
Bulgaria (1915–18) Bulgária (1915-1918)

Commanders and leaders Os comandantes e líderes
Leaders and commanders Os líderes e comandantes

Raymond Poincaré Raymond Poincaré
Georges Clemenceau Georges Clemenceau
Ferdinand Foch Ferdinand Foch
HH Asquith HH Asquith
David Lloyd George David Lloyd George
Nicholas II Nicolau II
Antonio Salandra Antonio Salandra
Vittorio Orlando Vittorio Orlando
Woodrow Wilson Woodrow Wilson
and others e outros
Leaders and commanders Os líderes e comandantes

Wilhelm II Wilhelm II
Paul von Hindenburg Paul von Hindenburg
Erich Ludendorff Erich Ludendorff
Franz Joseph I Francisco José I
Karl I Carlos I
İsmail Enver Ismail Enver
Ferdinand I Fernando I
and others e outros

Strength Força
Allies [ 1 ] Aliados [1]
12,000,000 12,000,000

8,841,541 [ 2 ] 8.841.541 [2]

8,660,000 [ 3 ] 8.660.000 [3]

5,093,140 5,093,140

4,743,826 4,743,826

1,234,000 1,234,000

800,000 800,000

707,343 707,343

380,000 380,000

250,000 250,000

200,000 200,000

50,000 50,000

Total:42,959,850 Total: 42.959.850
Central Powers [ 1 ] Potências Centrais [1]
13,250,000 13,250,000

7,800,000 7,800,000

2,998,321 2,998,321

1,200,000 1,200,000

Total: 25,248,321 Total: 25.248.321

Casualties and losses Acidentes e perdas
Military dead: Militares mortos:
5,525,000 5,525,000
Military wounded: Militar ferido:
12,831,500 12,831,500
Military missing: Militar em falta:
4,121,000 4,121,000
Total: Total:
22,477,500 KIA, WIA or MIA ... further details . 22.477.500 KIA, WIA ou MIA mais detalhes .... Military dead: Militares mortos:
4,386,000 4,386,000
Military wounded: Militar ferido:
8,388,000 8,388,000
Military missing: Militar em falta:
3,629,000 3,629,000
Total: Total:
16,403,000 KIA, WIA or MIA ... further details . 16.403.000 KIA, WIA ou MIA mais detalhes ....

[show]v · d · e v · d · e
Theatres of World War I Teatros da I Guerra Mundial

European : Europeias :
Balkans – Western Front – Eastern Front – Italian Front Balcãs - Front - Frente Oriental - Front italiano
Middle Eastern : Médio Oriente :
Caucasus – Persia – Gallipoli – Mesopotamia – Sinai and Palestine Cáucaso - Pérsia - Gallipoli - Mesopotâmia - Sinai e na Palestina
African : Africano :
South-West Africa – West Africa – East Africa – North Africa Sul da África Ocidental - África Ocidental - África Oriental - África do Norte
Asian and Pacific theatre Ásia e do Pacífico teatro
Other theatres : Outros teatros:
North America – Atlantic Ocean – Mediterranean América do Norte - Oceano Atlântico - Mediterrâneo


World War I (WWI) or First World War (called at the time the Great War ) was a major war centered on Europe that began in the summer of 1914. I Guerra Mundial (WWI) ou Primeira Guerra Mundial (chamado na época da Grande Guerra), foi uma grande guerra centrada na Europa, que começou no verão de 1914. The fighting ended in November 1918. A luta terminou em novembro de 1918. This conflict involved all of the world's great powers , [ 4 ] assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred around the Triple Entente ) and the Central Powers . [ 5 ] More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] More than 9 million combatants were killed , due largely to great technological advances in firepower without corresponding advances in mobility. Esse conflito envolveu todo o mundo de grandes potências , [4], montado em duas alianças opostas: os Aliados (em torno da Tríplice Entente ) e as Potências Centrais . [5] Mais de 70 milhões de militares, incluindo 60 milhões de europeus, foram mobilizados em uma das maiores guerras da história. [6] [7] Mais de 9.000 mil combatentes foram mortos , devido principalmente ao grande avanço tecnológico no poder de fogo sem avanços correspondentes na mobilidade. It was the second deadliest conflict in history. [ 8 ] Foi o segundo conflito mais mortal da história. [8]

The assassination on 28 June 1914 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary , was the proximate trigger of the war. O assassinato em 28 de junho de 1914 do arquiduque Franz Ferdinand da Áustria , o herdeiro do trono da Áustria-Hungria , foi o estopim imediato da guerra. Long-term causes, such as imperialistic foreign policies of the great powers of Europe, such as the German Empire , the Austro-Hungarian Empire , the Ottoman Empire , the Russian Empire , the British Empire , France, and Italy , played a major role. Longo prazo, faz com que, como imperialista política externa das grandes potências da Europa, como o Império Alemão , o Império Austro-Húngaro , o Império Otomano , o Império Russo , o Império Britânico , França e Itália , desempenhou um papel importante . Ferdinand's assassination by a Yugoslav nationalist resulted in a Habsburg ultimatum against the Kingdom of Serbia . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Several alliances formed over the past decades were invoked, so within weeks the major powers were at war; via their colonies, the conflict soon spread around the world. de assassinato de Fernando por um nacionalista Jugoslava resultou em um ultimato dos Habsburgos contra o Reino da Sérvia . [9] [10], várias alianças formadas ao longo das últimas décadas foram invocadas, assim dentro de algumas semanas as grandes potências estavam em guerra, através de suas colônias, o conflito mais rapidamente espalhados ao redor do mundo.

On 28 July, the conflict opened with the Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] followed by the German invasion of Belgium , Luxembourg and France; and a Russian attack against Germany. Em 28 de julho, o conflito aberto com o Império Austro-Húngaro invasão da Sérvia , [11] [12] seguido pela invasão alemã da Bélgica , Luxemburgo e França, e um ataque russo contra a Alemanha. After the German march on Paris was brought to a halt, the Western Front settled into a static battle of attrition with a trench line that changed little until 1917. Depois da marcha alemã em Paris, foi trazido a uma parada, a Frente Ocidental assente em uma batalha de atrito estático com uma linha de trincheiras que pouco mudou até 1917. In the East , the Russian army successfully fought against the Austro-Hungarian forces but was forced back by the German army. No Oriente , o exército russo lutou com sucesso contra a forças austro-húngaro, mas foi forçado a recuar pelo exército alemão. Additional fronts opened after the Ottoman Empire joined the war in 1914, Italy and Bulgaria in 1915 and Romania in 1916. Outras frentes abertas após o Império Otomano entrou na guerra em 1914, Itália e Bulgária em 1915 e da Roménia em 1916. The Russian Empire collapsed in 1917, and Russia left the war after the October Revolution later that year. O Império Russo entrou em colapso em 1917, ea Rússia saiu da guerra depois da Revolução de Outubro, no mesmo ano. After a 1918 German offensive along the western front, United States forces entered the trenches and the Allies drove back the German armies in a series of successful offensives. Após uma ofensiva de 1918 alemão ao longo da frente ocidental, as forças dos Estados Unidos entraram nas trincheiras e os aliados levou de volta os exércitos alemães em uma série de ofensivas de sucesso. Germany agreed to a cease-fire on 11 November 1918, later known as Armistice Day . Alemanha concordaram em um cessar-fogo em 11 de novembro de 1918, mais tarde conhecida como Dia do Armistício .

By the war's end, four major imperial powers—the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires—had been militarily and politically defeated. Ao final da guerra, quatro grandes potências imperiais do Alemão, Russo, Austro-Húngaro e Otomano, tinha sido militar e politicamente derrotado. The latter two ceased to exist. [ 13 ] The revolutionized Soviet Union emerged from the Russian Empire, while the map of central Europe was completely redrawn into numerous smaller states. [ 14 ] The League of Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. Os dois últimos deixaram de existir. [13] O revolucionou União Soviética emergiu do Império Russo, enquanto que o mapa da Europa central foi completamente redesenhado em numerosos estados menores. [14] A Liga das Nações foi formada na esperança de impedir um outro tal conflito. The European nationalism spawned by the war and the breakup of empires, and the repercussions of Germany's defeat and the Treaty of Versailles led to the beginning of World War II in 1939. [ 15 ] O nacionalismo europeu gerado pela guerra e da dissolução dos impérios, e as repercussões da derrota da Alemanha e do Tratado de Versalhes levou ao início da II Guerra Mundial em 1939. [15]

Contents Conteúdo [hide]
1 Etymology 1 Etimologia
2 Background 2 Antecedentes
3 Chronology 3 Cronologia
3.1 Opening hostilities 3,1 hostilidades Abertura
3.1.1 Confusion among the Central Powers 3.1.1 A confusão entre as Potências Centrais
3.1.2 African campaigns 3.1.2 campanhas Africano
3.1.3 Serbian campaign 3.1.3 campanha da Sérvia
3.1.4 German forces in Belgium and France 3.1.4 As forças alemãs na Bélgica e em França
3.1.5 Asia and the Pacific 3.1.5 Ásia e Pacífico
3.2 Early stages 3,2 As primeiras fases de
3.2.1 Trench warfare begins 3.2.1 guerra de trincheira tem início
3.3 Naval war 3,3 de Guerra Naval
3.4 Southern theatres 3,4 teatros Sul
3.4.1 War in the Balkans 3.4.1 A guerra nos Balcãs
3.4.2 Ottoman Empire 3.4.2 Império Otomano
3.4.3 Italian participation 3.4.3 participação italiana
3.4.4 Romanian participation 3.4.4 participação da Roménia
3.4.5 The role of India 3.4.5 O papel da Índia
3.5 Eastern Front 3,5 Frente Oriental
3.5.1 Initial actions 3.5.1 Acções iniciais
3.5.2 Russian Revolution 3.5.2 Revolução Russa
3.6 Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II declares victory 3,6 na Alemanha do Kaiser Wilhelm II declara vitória
3.7 1917–1918 3.7 1917-1918
3.7.1 Developments in 1917 3.7.1 Evolução em 1917
3.7.2 Entry of the United States 3.7.2 Entrada dos Estados Unidos
3.7.2.1 Non-Intervention 3.7.2.1 não-intervenção
3.7.2.2 Making the case 3.7.2.2 Fazendo o caso
3.7.2.3 US declaration of war on Germany 3.7.2.3 declaração dos EUA de guerra à Alemanha
3.7.2.4 First active US participation 3.7.2.4 Primeira participação ativa EUA
3.7.3 Austrian offer of separate peace 3.7.3 oferecer austríaca de paz em separado
3.7.4 German Spring Offensive of 1918 3.7.4 Ofensiva da Primavera Alemã de 1918
3.7.5 New states under war zone 3.7.5 Novos estados em zona de guerra
3.7.6 Allied victory: summer and autumn 1918 3.7.6 vitória dos aliados: o Verão eo Outono 1918
3.8 Armistices and capitulations 3,8 armistícios e capitulações
3.8.1 Allied superiority and the stab-in-the-back legend, November 1918 3.8.1 superioridade dos Aliados e do-in-the-legend volta de facada, nov 1918
4 Technology 4 Tecnologia
5 War crimes 5 crimes de guerra
5.1 Genocide and ethnic cleansing 5,1 genocídio e limpeza étnica
5.1.1 Ottoman Empire 5.1.1 Império Otomano
5.1.2 Russian Empire 5.1.2 Império Russo
5.2 Rape of Belgium 5,2 Estupro da Bélgica
6 Soldiers' experiences Soldados experiências 6
6.1 Prisoners of war 6,1 Os prisioneiros de guerra
6.2 Military attachés and war correspondents 6,2 adidos militares e correspondentes de guerra
7 Support and opposition to the war 7 Apoio e oposição à guerra
7.1 Support 7,1 Support
7.2 Opposition 7,2 Oposição
7.2.1 Conscription 7.2.1 Recrutamento
8 Aftermath 8 Aftermath
8.1 Health and economic effects 8,1 saúde e os efeitos económicos
8.2 Peace treaties and national boundaries 8,2 tratados de paz e as fronteiras nacionais
9 Legacy 9 Legacy
9.1 Memorials 9,1 Memoriais
9.2 Cultural memory 9,2 memória cultural
9.3 Social trauma 9,3 trauma Social
9.4 Discontent in Germany 9,4 descontentamento na Alemanha
9.5 Views in the United States Vistas 9,5 nos Estados Unidos
9.6 New national identities 9,6 identidades nacionais Novo
9.7 Economic effects 9,7 Efeitos económicos
10 See also 10 Ver também
10.1 Media 10,1 Mídia
11 Notes 11 Notas
12 References 12 Referências
13 External links 13 Ligações externas
13.1 Animated maps 13,1 mapas animados

Etymology Etimologia Before World War II, the war was also known as The Great War , The World War , or The War in Europe . [ 16 ] In France and Belgium, it was sometimes referred to as La Guerre du Droit ( the War for Justice ) or La Guerre Pour la Civilisation / de Oorlog tot de Beschaving ( the War to Preserve Civilisation ), especially on medals and commemorative monuments. Antes da Segunda Guerra Mundial, a guerra também era conhecido como A Grande Guerra, a Guerra Mundial, ou a guerra na Europa. [16] Em França e na Bélgica, foi por vezes referido como La Guerre du Droit (a Guerra da Justiça) ou La Guerre Pour la Civilisation / de tot oorlog de Beschaving (a guerra para preservar Civilização), especialmente em monumentos comemorativos e medalhas. The term of choice used by official histories of the war in Britain and Canada is First World War , while American histories generally use the term World War I . O prazo de escolha utilizado por histórias oficial da guerra na Grã-Bretanha e no Canadá é a Primeira Guerra Mundial, enquanto histórias americanos geralmente usam o termo da Primeira Guerra Mundial.

The earliest known use of the term First World War appeared in September 1914 when German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel said, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared "European War" ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." [ 17 ] O primeiro uso conhecido do termo da Primeira Guerra Mundial surgiu em setembro de 1914, quando o biólogo e filósofo alemão Ernst Haeckel afirmou, "Não há dúvida de que o curso eo caráter do temido" European War "... vai se tornar a primeira guerra mundial em sentido pleno da palavra. " [17]

The terms World War I and First World War both became standard (in the United States and Britain respectively) beginning in about 1940 to 1942; prior to that, it was most commonly called The Great War . [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Os termos I Guerra Mundial ea Primeira Guerra Mundial, ambos se tornaram padrão (nos Estados Unidos e Grã-Bretanha, respectivamente) que começou em 1940-1942, para isso, era mais comumente chamado de O Grande. War antes [18] [19]

Background Antecedentes Main article: Causes of World War I Ver artigo principal: Causas da I Guerra Mundial
In the 19th century, the major European powers had gone to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting by 1900 in a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent. [ 5 ] These had started in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia , Russia, and Austria. No século 19, as principais potências europeias tinha ido para grandes comprimentos para manter um equilíbrio de poder em toda a Europa, o que resultou em 1900 em uma complexa rede de alianças políticas e militares em todo o continente. [5] Estes tinham começado em 1815, com a Santa Aliança entre a Prússia , Rússia e Áustria. Then, in October 1873, German Chancellor Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund ) between the monarchs of Austria–Hungary, Russia and Germany. Então, em outubro de 1873, o chanceler alemão Bismarck negociou a Liga dos Três Imperadores (em alemão: Dreikaiserbund) entre os monarcas da Áustria-Hungria, Rússia e Alemanha. This agreement failed because Austria–Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria–Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance . Este acordo falhou porque a Áustria-Hungria e Rússia não poderia concordar sobre a política dos Balcãs, deixando a Alemanha ea Áustria-Hungria, em uma aliança formada em 1879, chamado de Aliança Dual . This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. [ 5 ] In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance . [ 20 ] Isto foi visto como um método de luta contra a influência russa nos Bálcãs como o Império Otomano continuou a se enfraquecer. [5] Em 1882, essa aliança foi ampliada para incluir a Itália em que se tornou a Tríplice Aliança . [20]

After 1870, European conflict was averted largely due to a carefully planned network of treaties between the German Empire and the remainder of Europe orchestrated by Chancellor Bismarck. Após 1870, o conflito europeu foi evitado em grande parte devido a uma rede de tratados cuidadosamente planejada entre o Império Alemão, eo restante da Europa orquestrada pelo chanceler Bismarck. He especially worked to hold Russia at Germany's side to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia. Ele trabalhou principalmente para manter a Rússia ao lado da Alemanha para evitar uma guerra de duas frentes com a França ea Rússia. With the ascension of Wilhelm II as German Emperor ( Kaiser ), Bismarck's system of alliances was gradually de-emphasized. Com a ascensão de Guilherme II como imperador alemão (Kaiser), o sistema de alianças de Bismarck foi gradualmente enfatizado. For example, the Kaiser refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1890. Por exemplo, o Kaiser recusou a renovar o Tratado de Resseguro com a Rússia em 1890. Two years later, the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. Dois anos depois, a aliança franco-russa foi assinado para contrabalançar a força da Tríplice Aliança. In 1904, the United Kingdom sealed an alliance with France, the Entente cordiale and in 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention . Em 1904, o Reino Unido selada uma aliança com a França, a Entente Cordiale e em 1907, o Reino Unido ea Rússia assinaram a Convenção Anglo-Russa . This system of interlocking bilateral agreements formed the Triple Entente . [ 5 ] Este sistema de bloqueio de acordos bilaterais formaram a Tríplice Entente . [5]



HMS Dreadnought . HMS Dreadnought . A naval arms race existed between the United Kingdom and Germany. Um naval corrida armamentista existia entre o Reino Unido ea Alemanha. German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the empire in 1870. poder industrial e econômico alemão tinha crescido enormemente depois da unificação e da fundação do império em 1870. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources to building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. [ 21 ] As a result, both nations strove to out-build each other in terms of capital ships . A partir de meados da década de 1890, o governo de Guilherme II usou esta base para se dedicar significativo de recursos económicos para a edificação da Kaiserliche Marine (Marinha Imperial Alemã), criada pelo almirante Alfred von Tirpitz , em rivalidade com o britânico Royal Navy para o mundo de supremacia naval . [21] Como resultado, ambas as nações se esforçou para fora edificar uns aos outros em termos de navios de capital . With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rivals. [ 21 ] The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to the production of the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict. [ 22 ] Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 percent. [ 23 ] Com o lançamento do HMS Dreadnought , em 1906, o Império Britânico expandiu a sua vantagem significativa sobre seus rivais alemães. [21] A corrida armamentista entre a Inglaterra ea Alemanha finalmente se estendeu ao resto da Europa, com todas as grandes potências que consagram a sua base industrial para a produção de armas e equipamentos necessários para um conflito pan-europeu. [22] Entre 1908 e 1913, os gastos militares das potências europeias aumentou em 50 por cento. [23]

Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Áustria-Hungria precipitou a crise da Bósnia, de 1908-1909 pelo oficialmente a anexação do território otomano antigo Bósnia e Herzegovina , que havia ocupado desde 1878. This greatly angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire . [ 24 ] Russian political maneuvering in the region destabilized peace accords that were already fracturing in what was known as "the Powder keg of Europe ". [ 24 ] Isso enfureceu o Reino da Sérvia e de seu patrono, o Pan-eslavo e ortodoxo Império Russo . [24] manobra política russa na região desestabilizada acordos de paz que já estavam fractura no que ficou conhecido como o " barril de pólvora da Europa ". [ 24]

In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. Em 1912 e 1913, a Primeira Guerra Balcânica foi travada entre a Liga Balcânica e fraturando Império Otomano. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian State while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. O resultado do Tratado de Londres recuou mais do Império Otomano, criando um organismo independente albanesa Estado enquanto ampliando as explorações territoriais da Bulgária, Sérvia, Montenegro e Grécia. When Bulgaria attacked both Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War , further destabilising the region. [ 25 ] Quando a Bulgária atacaram a Sérvia ea Grécia, em 16 de junho de 1913, ele perdeu a maior parte da Macedónia e Sérvia e Grécia e Dobruja do Sul para a Romênia em 33 dias Segunda Guerra Balcânica , desestabilizando ainda mais a região. [25]



Ethno-linguistic map of Austria–Hungary, 1910 Mapa Etno-linguística da Áustria-Hungria, 1910 On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip , a Bosnian-Serb student and member of Young Bosnia , assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo , Bosnia. [ 26 ] This began a period of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain called the July Crisis . Em 28 de junho de 1914, Gavrilo Princip , um estudante sérvio-bósnio e membro do jovem Bósnia , assassinou o herdeiro do trono austro-húngaro, o arquiduque Franz Ferdinand da Áustria , em Sarajevo , na Bósnia. [26] Isto começou um período de manobras diplomáticas entre Áustria-Hungria, Alemanha, Rússia, França e Grã-Bretanha chamada crise de julho . Wanting to end Serbian interference in Bosnia conclusively, Austria-Hungary delivered the July Ultimatum to Serbia, a series of ten demands which were intentionally unacceptable, made with the intention of deliberately initiating a war with Serbia. [ 27 ] When Serbia acceded to only eight of the ten demands levied against it in the ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. Strachan argues "Whether an equivocal and early response by Serbia would have made any difference to Austria-Hungary's behaviour must be doubtful. Franz Ferdinand was not the sort of personality who commanded popularity, and his demise did not cast the empire into deepest mourning". [ 28 ] Querendo acabar com a interferência sérvio na Bósnia conclusivamente, Áustria-Hungria entregou o Ultimato de julho para a Sérvia, uma série de dez reivindicações que foram deliberadamente inaceitável, feito com a intenção deliberada de iniciar uma guerra com a Sérvia. [27] Quando a Sérvia aderido a apenas oito das dez reivindicações feitas contra ele no ultimato, Áustria-Hungria declarou guerra à Sérvia em 28 de julho de 1914. Strachan defende "Se um e-resposta equivocada por parte da Sérvia teria feito alguma diferença para-Hungria comportamento Áustria deve ser duvidosa. Franz Ferdinand não era o tipo de personalidade que comandou popularidade, e sua morte não pôs o império no mais profundo "de luto. [28]

The Russian Empire, unwilling to allow Austria–Hungary to eliminate its influence in the Balkans, and in support of its longtime Serb protégés, ordered a partial mobilization one day later. [ 20 ] When the German Empire began to mobilize on 30 July 1914, France, sporting significant animosity over the German conquest of Alsace-Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian War , ordered French mobilization on 1 August. O Império Russo, dispostos a permitir que a Áustria-Hungria para eliminar sua influência nos Balcãs, e em apoio dos seus pupilos sérvia de longa data, ordenou uma mobilização parcial, um dia depois. [20] Quando o Império Alemão começaram a se mobilizar em 30 de julho de 1914, França, ostentando animosidade significativa sobre a invasão alemã da Alsácia-Lorena durante a Guerra Franco-Prussiana , ordenou a mobilização francesa em 01 de agosto. Germany declared war on Russia on the same day. [ 29 ] The United Kingdom declared war on Germany, on 4 August 1914, following an "unsatisfactory reply" to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral . [ 30 ] A Alemanha declarou guerra à Rússia no mesmo dia. [29] O Reino Unido declarou guerra à Alemanha, em 4 de agosto de 1914, na sequência de uma "resposta satisfatória" para o ultimato britânico de que a Bélgica deve ser mantido neutro . [30]

Chronology Cronologia Opening hostilities Abertura das hostilidades Confusion among the Central Powers Confusão entre as Potências Centrais The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. A estratégia das Potências Centrais sofria de problemas de comunicação. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. A Alemanha tinha prometido apoiar a invasão da Áustria-Hungria, da Sérvia, mas as interpretações do que isso significava diferente. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but never tested in exercises. planos de utilização previamente testado tinha sido substituído no início de 1914, mas nunca testados em exercícios. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. [ 31 ] Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing the majority of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. Austro-Húngaro líderes acreditavam Alemanha iria cobrir o seu flanco norte contra a Rússia. [31] A Alemanha, contudo, a Áustria-Hungria imaginou dirigindo a maioria das suas tropas contra a Rússia, enquanto a Alemanha tratou com a França. This confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts. Esta confusão forçou o exército Austro-Húngaro a dividir suas forças entre o russo eo sérvio frentes.

On 9 September 1914, the Septemberprogramm , a possible plan which detailed Germany's specific war aims and the conditions that Germany sought to force upon the Allied Powers, was outlined by German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg . Em 09 de setembro de 1914, o Septemberprogramm , um plano pormenorizado possível, que a guerra tem como objectivo a Alemanha e as condições que a Alemanha procurou vigor após as Potências Aliadas, foi descrito pelo chanceler alemão Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg . It was never officially adopted. Ela nunca foi oficialmente adotado.

African campaigns campanhas Africano

Lettow surrendering his forces to the British at Abercorn Lettow rendendo suas forças para os britânicos em Abercorn Main article: African theatre of World War I Ver artigo principal: Africano teatro da Primeira Guerra Mundial
Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French and German colonial forces in Africa. Alguns dos primeiros confrontos da guerra envolvidos britânico, francês e alemão forças coloniais em África. On 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland . Em 07 de agosto, e British tropas francesas invadiram o protetorado alemão da Togolândia . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the remainder of the war. Em 10 de Agosto, as forças alemãs no Sul-África Ocidental atacaram a África do Sul, e ferozes combates esporádicos continuaram durante o resto da guerra. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought a guerrilla warfare campaign for the duration of World War I, only surrendering two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. [ 32 ] As forças coloniais alemãs na África Oriental Alemã , liderada pelo coronel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck , travaram uma guerra de guerrilha campanha durante o período da I Guerra Mundial, apenas a entrega de duas semanas após o cessar-fogo entrou em vigor na Europa. [32]

Serbian campaign campanha da Sérvia

Serbian Army during its retreat towards Albania Exército sérvio durante a sua retirada para a Albânia Main article: Serbian Campaign (World War I) Ver artigo principal: Sérvio Campanha (Primeira Guerra Mundial)
The Serbian army fought the Battle of Cer against the invading Austro-Hungarians, beginning on 12 August, occupying defensive positions on the south side of the Drina and Sava rivers. O exército sérvio lutou a batalha de Cer contra os invasores austro-húngaros, com início em 12 de agosto, ocupando posições defensivas no lado sul do Drina e Sava rios. Over the next two weeks Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victory of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. Durante as próximas duas semanas os ataques austríacos foram jogados para trás com pesadas perdas, que marcou a primeira grande vitória dos aliados da guerra e acabou com as esperanças austro-húngaro de uma vitória rápida. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. [ 33 ] Como resultado, a Áustria teve que manter forças consideráveis na frente sérvia, enfraquecendo seus esforços contra a Rússia. [33]

German forces in Belgium and France As forças alemãs na Bélgica e em França

German soldiers in a railway goods van on the way to the front in 1914. soldados alemães em uma van de transporte ferroviário de mercadorias no caminho para a frente em 1914. A message on the car spells out "Trip to Paris"; early in the war all sides expected the conflict to be a short one. Uma mensagem sobre o carro soletra "Viagem a Paris", no início da guerra todos os lados do conflito deverá ser curto. Main article: Western Front (World War I) Ver artigo principal: Frente Ocidental (Primeira Guerra Mundial)
At the outbreak of the First World War, the German army (consisting in the West of seven field armies ) executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan , designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. [ 9 ] The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially, the Germans were very successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14–24 August). Com a eclosão da Primeira Guerra Mundial, o exército alemão (que consiste no Oeste sete exércitos de campo ) executou uma versão modificada do Plano Schlieffen , destinado a atacar a França rapidamente através da Bélgica neutra antes de virar para o sul a fim de cercar o exército francês na Alemanha fronteira. [9] O plano de chamadas para o flanco direito do avanço alemão a convergir para Paris e, inicialmente, os alemães foram muito bem sucedidas, em especial no Batalha das Fronteiras (14-24 de Agosto). By 12 September, the French with assistance from the British forces halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September). Até 12 de setembro, os franceses com o auxílio do exército britânico interrompeu o avanço alemão a leste de Paris, na Primeira Batalha do Marne (5-12 setembro). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. [ 9 ] The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the Battle of Mulhouse had limited success. Os últimos dias desta batalha significou o fim da guerra móvel, a oeste. [9] A ofensiva francesa para a Alemanha, lançado em 07 de agosto com a Batalha de Mulhouse teve sucesso limitado.

In the east, only one Field Army defended East Prussia and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. No leste, apenas uma Army Field defendido a Prússia Oriental , e quando a Rússia atacou nesta região é desviado forças alemãs destinadas à Frente Ocidental. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the German General Staff . A Alemanha derrotou a Rússia em uma série de batalhas coletivamente conhecidos como a Primeira Batalha de Tannenberg (17 agosto - 2 setembro), mas esse desvio agravaram os problemas de velocidade de avanço insuficiente de ferro-cabeças não previstas pelo Estado-Maior alemão . The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. As Potências Centrais foram, assim, negou uma vitória rápida e forçado a lutar uma guerra em duas frentes. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. O exército alemão tinha lutado o seu caminho em uma boa posição defensiva dentro da França e tinha permanentemente incapacitadas mais 230 mil tropas francesas e britânicas do que ele havia perdido em si. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory. [ 34 ] Apesar disso, problemas de comunicação e de decisões questionáveis comando custo Alemanha, a chance de obter uma vitória antecipada. [34]

Asia and the Pacific Ásia e Pacífico Main article: Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I Ver artigo principal: Ásia e Pacífico teatro da Primeira Guerra Mundial
New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August. Nova Zelândia ocupada Samoa Alemã (mais tarde Samoa Ocidental) em 30 de agosto. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea . Em 11 de setembro, a Naval e Militar australiano Força Expedicionária desembarcou na ilha de Neu Pommern (mais tarde New Britain), que faziam parte da Nova Guiné Alemã . Japan seized Germany's Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Tsingtao , the German coaling port of Qingdao in the Chinese Shandong peninsula. O Japão ocupou Alemanha Micronésia colônias e, após o Cerco de Tsingtao , o porto alemão de abastecimento de carvão de Qingdao na China Shandong península. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Dentro de alguns meses, as forças aliadas haviam tomado todos os territórios alemães no Pacífico, isolada e atacantes comércio em alguns redutos Nova Guiné permaneceu. Só [35] [36]

Early stages As primeiras fases de Trench warfare begins guerra de trincheira tem início Main article: Western Front (World War I) Ver artigo principal: Frente Ocidental (Primeira Guerra Mundial)


Sir Winston Churchill with the Royal Scots Fusiliers , 1916 Sir Winston Churchill com o escocês Royal Fuzileiros , 1916 Military tactics before World War I had failed to keep pace with advances in technology. As táticas militares antes da I Guerra Mundial não tinha conseguido acompanhar os avanços na tecnologia. These changes resulted in the building of impressive defence systems, which out of date tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances. Artillery , vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns , made crossing open ground very difficult. [ 37 ] The Germans introduced poison gas ; it soon became used by both sides, though it never proved decisive in winning a battle. Estas mudanças resultaram na construção de sistemas de defesa impressionante, que fora de táticas data não poderia romper a maior parte da guerra. arame farpado foi um obstáculo significativo para massed avanços de infantaria. Artilharia , muito mais letal do que em 1870, juntamente com máquina armas , feita cruzando terreno aberto, muito difícil. [37] Os alemães introduziram o gás venenoso , que passou a ser usada por ambos os lados, embora ele nunca foi decisiva na conquista de uma batalha. Its effects were brutal, causing slow and painful death, and poison gas became one of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Seus efeitos eram brutais, causando a morte lenta e dolorosa, e gás venenoso se tornou um dos mais temidos e mais lembrados horrores da guerra. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. Os comandantes de ambos os lados não conseguiram desenvolver táticas para violar as posições entrincheiradas, sem pesadas baixas.

In time, however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as the tank . [ 38 ] Britain and France were its primary users; the Germans employed captured Allied tanks and small numbers of their own design. No momento, porém, a tecnologia começou a produzir novas armas ofensivas, como o tanque . [38] Grã-Bretanha e França foram os seus principais utilizadores, os alemães empregaram Allied tanques capturados e um pequeno número de seu próprio projeto. After the First Battle of the Marne , both Entente and German forces began a series of outflanking manoeuvres, in the so-called " Race to the Sea ". Após a Primeira Batalha do Marne , ambos Entente forças alemãs e começou uma série de manobras superando, na chamada " corrida para o mar ". Britain and France soon found themselves facing entrenched German forces from Lorraine to Belgium's coast. [ 9 ] Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories; consequently, German trenches were generally much better constructed than those of their enemy. Grã-Bretanha e França logo se viu enfrentando forças alemãs entrincheirado de Lorena para a costa da Bélgica. [9], a Grã-Bretanha ea França procuraram tomar a ofensiva, enquanto a Alemanha defenderam os territórios ocupados e, conseqüentemente, as trincheiras alemãs eram em geral muito melhores construídos do que os de seus inimigos. Anglo-French trenches were only intended to be "temporary" before their forces broke through German defences. [ 39 ] Both sides attempted to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. Anglo-Francês trincheiras foram destinados apenas a ser "temporária" antes de suas forças rompeu as defesas alemãs. [39] Ambos os lados tentaram romper o impasse com os avanços científicos e tecnológicos. On 22 April 1915 at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (in violation of the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Em 22 de abril de 1915 na Segunda Batalha de Ypres , os alemães (em violação da Convenção de Haia ) utilizado cloro gás, pela primeira vez na Frente Ocidental. Algerian troops retreated when gassed and a six kilometre (four mile) hole opened in the Allied lines that the Germans quickly exploited, taking Kitcheners' Wood . Canadian soldiers closed the breach at the Second Battle of Ypres . [ 40 ] At the Third Battle of Ypres , Canadian and ANZAC troops took the village of Passchendaele . soldados argelinos recuou quando gaseados e um quilômetro seis (quatro milhas) buraco aberto nas linhas aliadas que os alemães rapidamente exploradas, tendo 'Wood montadores . soldados canadenses fechado a brecha na Segunda Batalha de Ypres . [40] Na Terceira Batalha de Ypres , canadenses e ANZAC tropas tomaram a vila de Passchendaele .



Men in Melbourne collecting recruitment papers Homens em Melbourne recolher papéis de recrutamento

In the trenches : Royal Irish Rifles in a communications trench on the first day on the Somme , 1 July 1916. Nas trincheiras : irlandês Royal Rifles de comunicações trincheira no primeiro dia da batalha de Somme , 01 de julho de 1916. On 1 July 1916, the British Army endured the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead on the first day of the Battle of the Somme . Em 01 de julho de 1916, o Exército Britânico enfrentou o dia mais sangrento de sua história, o sofrimento 57.470 vítimas, 19.240 mortos no primeiro dia da Batalha do Somme . Most of the casualties occurred in the first hour of the attack. A maioria dos acidentes ocorreu na primeira hora do ataque. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army almost half a million men. [ 41 ] A ofensiva custo Somme todo o exército britânico quase meio milhão de homens. [41]

Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years, though protracted German action at Verdun throughout 1916, [ 42 ] combined with the bloodletting at the Somme , brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Nenhum dos dois lados se mostraram capazes de dar um golpe decisivo para os próximos dois anos, embora de ação prolongada em alemão Verdun longo de 1916, [42], combinado com o derramamento de sangue no Somme , levou o exército francês esgotado à beira do colapso. Futile attempts at frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French poilu (infantry) and led to widespread mutinies , especially during the Nivelle Offensive . [ 43 ] tentativas inúteis de ataque frontal teve um preço alto para ambos os britânicos e os franceses poilu (infantaria) e levaram a motins generalizados , especialmente durante a Ofensiva Nivelle . [43]



Canadian troops advancing behind a British Mark II tank at the Battle of Vimy Ridge . As tropas canadenses avançar atrás de um britânico tanque Mark II na Batalha de Vimy Ridge .

A French assault on German positions. Um assalto francês sobre as posições alemãs. Champagne, France, 1917. Champagne, França, 1917. Throughout 1915–17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, due both to the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. Ao longo de 1915-1917, o Império Britânico ea França sofreram mais baixas do que a Alemanha, devido tanto à posturas estratégicas e táticas escolhidas pelos lados. At the strategic level, while the Germans only mounted a single main offensive at Verdun , the Allies made several attempts to break through German lines. No nível estratégico, enquanto os alemães só montou uma ofensiva principal individual em Verdun , os Aliados fizeram diversas tentativas para romper as linhas alemãs. At the tactical level, Ludendorff's doctrine of " elastic defence " was well suited for trench warfare. No nível tático, a doutrina Ludendorff de " defesa elástica "foi bem adaptado para a guerra de trincheira. This defence had a relatively lightly defended forward position and a more powerful main position farther back beyond artillery range, from which an immediate and powerful counter-offensive could be launched. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Essa defesa teve um relativamente pouco defendeu para a frente posição e uma posição mais poderosa principais mais para trás além do alcance da artilharia, da qual uma imediata e poderosa contra-ofensiva pudesse ser lançada. [44] [45]

Ludendorff wrote on the fighting in 1917, Ludendorff escreveu sobre a luta em 1917,

The 25th of August concluded the second phase of the Flanders battle. A 25 de agosto concluiu a segunda fase da batalha da Flandres. It had cost us heavily ... Custou-nos muito ... The costly August battles in Flanders and at Verdun imposed a heavy strain on the Western troops. As batalhas de caros em agosto de Flandres e em Verdun impôs uma forte pressão sobre as tropas ocidentais. In spite of all the concrete protection they seemed more or less powerless under the enormous weight of the enemy's artillery. Apesar de toda a proteção de concreto que pareciam mais ou menos impotentes sob o enorme peso da artilharia do inimigo. At some points they no longer displayed the firmness which I, in common with the local commanders, had hoped for. Em alguns pontos, eles já não aparece a firmeza que eu, em comum com os comandantes locais, que esperava. The enemy managed to adapt himself to our method of employing counter attacks ... O inimigo conseguiu se adaptar ao nosso método de contratação de contra-ataque ... I myself was being put to a terrible strain. Eu mesmo estava sendo submetida a uma tensão terrível. The state of affairs in the West appeared to prevent the execution of our plans elsewhere. O estado de coisas no Ocidente surgiu para impedir a execução dos nossos planos em outro lugar. Our wastage had been so high as to cause grave misgivings, and had exceeded all expectation. [ 46 ] Nosso desperdício tinha sido tão grande que causa graves suspeitas, e tinha ultrapassado todas as expectativas. [46]
On the battle of the Menin Road Ridge, Ludendorff wrote, Na batalha da Estrada Menin Ridge, Ludendorff escreveu,

Another terrific assault was made on our lines on the 20 September ... Outro assalto foi feito incrível em nossas linhas sobre o 20 de setembro ... The enemy's onslaught on the 20th was successful, which proved the superiority of the attack over the defence. O ataque inimigo, no dia 20 foi bem sucedida, que comprovou a superioridade do ataque sobre a defesa. Its strength did not consist in the tanks; we found them inconvenient, but put them out of action all the same. Sua força não consiste nos tanques; nós os encontramos inconveniente, mas colocá-los fora de ação todos os mesmos. The power of the attack lay in the artillery, and in the fact that ours did not do enough damage to the hostile infantry as they were assembling, and above all, at the actual time of the assault. [ 47 ] O poder do ataque estava na artilharia, e no fato de que a nossa não fez o suficiente para danificar a infantaria hostis como eram montagem, e acima de tudo, o tempo real da agressão. [47]


Officers and senior enlisted men of the Bermuda Militia Artillery 's Bermuda Contingent, Royal Garrison Artillery, in Europe. Oficiais e praças sênior da Bermuda Milícia Artilharia 's Bermuda Contingente, Royal Garrison Artillery, na Europa. Around 1.1 to 1.2 million soldiers from the British and Dominion armies were on the Western Front at any one time. [ 48 ] A thousand battalions, occupying sectors of the line from the North Sea to the Orne River , operated on a month-long four-stage rotation system, unless an offensive was underway. Cerca de 1,1-1.200.000 soldados dos exércitos britânico e Domínio foram na Frente Ocidental, a qualquer momento. [48] Um mil batalhões, os setores de ocupação da linha do mar do Norte para o Rio Orne , operado em um longo quatro meses sistema de rotação de fase, a menos que uma ofensiva estava em curso. The front contained over 9,600 kilometres (5,965 mi) of trenches. A parte dianteira continha mais de 9.600 km (5.965 milhas) de trincheiras. Each battalion held its sector for about a week before moving back to support lines and then further back to the reserve lines before a week out-of-line, often in the Poperinge or Amiens areas. Cada batalhão realizou o seu sector de cerca de uma semana antes de voltar a apoiar linhas e posteriormente voltar para as linhas de reserva antes de uma semana fora de linha, muitas vezes no Poperinge ou Amiens áreas.

In the 1917 Battle of Arras , the only significant British military success was the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps under Sir Arthur Currie and Julian Byng . Em 1917 a Batalha de Arras , o único militar britânica sucesso significativo foi a captura de Vimy Ridge pelo Corpo Canadense sob Sir Arthur Currie e Byng Julian . The assaulting troops were able for the first time to overrun, rapidly reinforce and hold the ridge defending the coal-rich Douai plain. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] As tropas de assalto foram capazes, pela primeira vez a superação, rapidamente reforçar e manter a crista defesa do carvão-ricos Douai simples. [49] [50]

Naval war Guerra Naval Main article: Naval warfare of World War I Ver artigo principal: a guerra naval da I Guerra Mundial


The British Grand Fleet making steam for Scapa Flow , 1914 O British Grand Fleet vapor fazendo para Scapa Flow , 1914 At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . No início da guerra, o Império Alemão tinha cruzadores espalhados pelo globo, alguns dos quais foram posteriormente usados para atacar aliados da marinha mercante . The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. A British Royal Navy sistematicamente caçado-los, embora não sem algum constrangimento de sua incapacidade de proteger os navios aliados. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden , part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Por exemplo, o alemão individual cruzador ligeiro SMS Emden , parte da esquadra do leste da Ásia estacionados em Tsingtao, apreendidas ou destruiu 15 navios mercantes, bem como afundar um cruzador russo e um destróier francês. However, the bulk of the German East-Asia squadron —consisting of the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships—did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it encountered elements of the British fleet. No entanto, a maior parte da Alemanha de Leste ea Ásia esquadra composta pelos blindados cruzadores Scharnhorst e Gneisenau , luz cruzadores Nuremberg e Leipzig, e dois navios de transporte não tem ordens para atacar ao invés de transporte e foi para a Alemanha em andamento quando foi interceptado por elementos da frota britânica. The German flotilla, along with Dresden , sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel , but was almost destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but at the Battle of Más a Tierra these too were destroyed or interned. [ 51 ] A frota alemã, juntamente com Dresden , afundou dois cruzadores blindados na batalha de Coronel , mas foi quase destruída na Batalha das Ilhas Malvinas , em dezembro de 1914, com apenas Dresden e alguns auxiliares de escapar, mas na Batalha de Más a Tierra estes também foram destruídas ou internados. [51]



A battleship squadron of the Hochseeflotte at sea Um esquadrão de batalha da Hochseeflotte no mar Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval blockade of Germany . Logo após o início das hostilidades, a Inglaterra iniciou uma naval bloqueio da Alemanha . The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. [ 52 ] Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. [ 53 ] Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. [ 54 ] A estratégia mostrou-se eficaz, cortando vital civis e suprimentos militares, embora este bloqueio violava o direito internacional geralmente aceites codificada por diversos acordos internacionais dos últimos dois séculos. [52] Grã-Bretanha minadas águas internacionais para evitar a entrada de navios de seções inteiras do oceano, causando perigo até mesmo para os navios neutros. [53] Como não havia resposta limitada a essa tática, a Alemanha espera uma resposta semelhante à sua guerra submarina irrestrita. [54]

The 1916 Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht , or "Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest naval battle of the war, the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. O 1916 Batalha da Jutlândia (em alemão: Skagerrakschlacht, ou "Batalha do Skagerrak") desenvolveu-se a maior batalha naval da guerra, o conflito em larga escala de navios de guerra apenas durante a guerra, e um dos maiores da história. It took place on 31 May – 1 June 1916, in the North Sea off Jutland . Aconteceu dia 31 maio - 1 junho 1916, no Mar do Norte fora da Jutlândia . The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , squared off against the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet , led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe . Kaiserliche Marine High The Seas Fleet, comandada pelo Vice-Almirante Reinhard Scheer , quadrado fora contra a Marinha Real Grand Fleet , liderada pelo almirante Sir John Jellicoe . The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans, outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. O noivado foi um impasse, como os alemães, driblada pela maior frota britânica, conseguiu escapar e causou mais danos à frota britânica do que receberam. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war. [ 55 ] Estrategicamente, porém, o britânico afirmou seu controle do mar, ea maior parte da frota de superfície alemã permaneceu confinado a porta para a duração da guerra. [55]

German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. [ 56 ] The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] The United States launched a protest, and Germany modified its rules of engagement. Alemão U-boats tentou cortar as linhas de suprimento entre a América do Norte e Grã-Bretanha. [56] A natureza da guerra submarina fez com que os ataques muitas vezes veio sem aviso, dando as tripulações dos navios mercantes pouca esperança de sobrevivência. [56] [57] Os Estados Unidos lançaram um protesto, e na Alemanha modificou suas regras de engajamento. After the notorious sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules" which demanded warning and placing crews in "a place of safety" (a standard which lifeboats did not meet). [ 58 ] Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. [ 56 ] [ 59 ] Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the US could transport a large army overseas, but were only able to maintain five long range U-boats on station, to limited effect. [ 56 ] Após o naufrágio do famoso navio de passageiros RMS Lusitânia , em 1915, a Alemanha prometeu não atacar navios de passageiros, enquanto a Grã-Bretanha armados navios mercantes seu, colocando-os para além da protecção das "regras do cruzador", que exigiu a colocação de aviso e tripulações em "um lugar de segurança "(uma norma que salva-vidas não se encontram). [58] Finalmente, no início de 1917 a Alemanha adoptou uma política de guerra submarina irrestrita , percebendo que os americanos acabariam por entrar na guerra. [56] [59] A Alemanha tentou estrangulá-mar Aliados pistas antes que os EUA poderiam transportar um grande exército no exterior, mas só foram capazes de manter cinco de longo alcance U-boats na estação, para efeito limitado. [56]



First U-boat of the German fleet surrendering near Tower Bridge, London, 1918. Primeiro submarino da frota alemã render perto de Tower Bridge, Londres, 1918. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered convoys escorted by destroyers. O barco ameaça-U diminuiu em 1917, quando navios mercantes entrou comboios escoltados por destróieres. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the introduction of hydrophone and depth charges , accompanying destroyers might attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Essa tática dificultou para o U-boats para encontrar metas, o que diminui significativamente as perdas, após a introdução de hidrofones e cargas de profundidade , destruidores de acompanhamento pode atacar um submarino submerso com alguma esperança de sucesso. The convoy system slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. O sistema de comboio diminuiu o fluxo de suprimentos, uma vez que os navios tinham que esperar que os comboios estavam reunidos. The solution to the delays was an extensive program to build new freighters. A solução para os atrasos foi o de um extenso programa para construir novos cargueiros. Troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. [ 60 ] The U-boats had sunk almost 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 178 submarines. [ 61 ] Tropa navios eram muito rápidas para os submarinos e não viajar pelo Atlântico Norte em comboios. [60] Os U-boats tinha afundado quase 5000 navios aliados, a um custo de 178 submarinos. [61]

World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. [ 62 ] I Guerra Mundial também viu a primeira utilização de aviões de combate, com o HMS Furious lançamento Sopwith Camels em um ataque bem sucedido contra o Zeppelin hangares Tondern em julho de 1918, bem como os dirigíveis de patrulha anti-submarina. [62]

Southern theatres Sul teatros War in the Balkans Guerra nos Balcãs Main articles: Balkans Campaign (World War I) , Serbian Campaign (World War I) , and Macedonian front (World War I) Ver artigo principal: Campanha dos Balcãs (I Guerra Mundial) , sérvio de Campanha (Primeira Guerra Mundial) , e diante da Macedónia (I Guerra Mundial)


Austrian troops executing captured Serbians in 1917. tropas austríacas execução sérvios capturados em 1917. Serbia lost about 850,000 people, a quarter of its prewar population, and half its prewar resources. [ 63 ] A Sérvia perdeu cerca de 850.000 pessoas, um quarto de sua população antes da guerra, e metade dos seus recursos antes da guerra. [63] Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. Confrontado com a Rússia, Áustria-Hungria poderia poupar apenas um terço do seu exército para atacar a Sérvia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . Depois de sofrer pesadas perdas, os austríacos ocuparam brevemente a capital sérvia, Belgrado . A Serbian counter attack in the battle of Kolubara , however, succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. Um contra-ataque sérvio na batalha de Kolubara , no entanto, conseguiu conduzi-los do país até o final de 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. Para os primeiros dez meses de 1915, Áustria-Hungria usado na maioria das suas reservas militares para lutar contra a Itália. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join in attacking Serbia. Austro-Húngaro e diplomatas alemães, no entanto, marcou um golpe persuadindo a Bulgária a aderir ao atacar a Sérvia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary, invading Serbia as well as fighting Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. [ 64 ] As províncias do Império Austro-Húngaro da Eslovénia , Croácia e Bósnia forneceram tropas para a Áustria-Hungria, invadindo a Sérvia, bem como a luta contra a Rússia e Itália. Montenegro aliou-se com a Sérvia. [64]

Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month. A Sérvia foi conquistado em pouco mais de um mês. The attack began in October, when the Central Powers launched an offensive from the north; four days later the Bulgarians joined the attack from the east. O ataque começou em outubro, quando as potências centrais lançaram uma ofensiva a partir do norte, quatro dias depois, os búlgaros se juntou ao ataque a partir do leste. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into Albania , halting only once to make a stand against the Bulgarians. O exército sérvio, lutando em duas frentes e de frente para uma derrota certa, retirou-se para a Albânia , parando apenas uma vez para tomar uma posição contra os búlgaros. The Serbs suffered defeat near modern day Gnjilane in the Battle of Kosovo . Os sérvios foram derrotados perto moderna Gnjilane na Batalha de Kosovo . Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians conquered Montenegro, too. Montenegro cobriram a retirada da Sérvia em direção à costa do Adriático, na Batalha de Mojkovac em 6-7 janeiro de 1916, mas no final os austríacos conquistaram Montenegro, também. Serbian forces were evacuated by ship to Greece. [ 65 ] As forças sérvias foram evacuados por navio para a Grécia. [65]

In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure the government to declare war against the Central Powers. Em finais de 1915, um britânico vigor Franco desembarcou em Salonica , na Grécia, para oferecer assistência e para pressionar o governo a declarar guerra contra as Potências Centrais. Unfortunately for the Allies, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos , before the Allied expeditionary force could arrive. [ 66 ] Infelizmente para os Aliados, o pró-alemão, o Rei Constantino I demitiu o governo pró-aliados de Eleftherios Venizelos , antes da Força Expedicionária Aliada pudesse chegar. [66]



The Entente in Macedonia. A Entente na Macedónia. From left to right: soldiers from Indochina, France, Senegal, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Serbia, Greece, and India. Da esquerda para a direita: os soldados da Indochina, a França, Senegal, Grã-Bretanha, Rússia, Itália, Sérvia, Grécia e Índia. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. Após a conquista, a Sérvia foi dividido entre Austro-Hungria e Bulgária. Bulgarians commenced bulgarization of the Serbian population in their occupation zone, banishing Serbian Cyrillic and the Serbian Orthodox Church . [ citation needed ] After forced conscription of the Serbian population into the Bulgarian army [ citation needed ] in 1917, the Toplica Uprising began. Búlgaros começaram bulgarization da população sérvia na sua zona de ocupação, banindo cirílico sérvio ea Igreja Ortodoxa da Sérvia . [ carece de fontes? ] Depois de recrutamento forçado da população sérvia no exército búlgaro [ carece de fontes? ] em 1917, a Toplica revolta começou. Serbian rebels liberated for a short time the area between the Kopaonik mountains and the South Morava river. rebeldes sérvios libertado por um breve período a área entre o Kopaonik montanhas eo Sul Morava rio. The uprising was crushed by joint efforts of Bulgarian and Austrian forces at the end of March 1917. O levante foi esmagado por um esforço conjunto das forças búlgaras e austríacos no final de março de 1917.

The Macedonian Front proved static for the most part. A frente da Macedônia mostrou estático para a maior parte. Serbian forces retook part of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916. As forças sérvias retomou parte da Macedônia recapturando Bitola em 19 de novembro de 1916. Only at the end of the conflict were the Entente powers able to break through, after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had withdrawn. Só no final do conflito eram as potências da Entente capaz de romper, após a maioria dos alemães e as tropas austro-húngaro retirou. The Bulgarians suffered their only defeat of the war at the Battle of Dobro Pole but days later, they decisively defeated British and Greek forces at the Battle of Doiran , avoiding occupation. Os búlgaros sofreram sua única derrota da guerra na Batalha de Dobro Pólo , mas dias depois, derrotado e grego forças britânicas na Batalha de Doiran , evitando a ocupação. Bulgaria signed an armistice on 29 September 1918. [ 67 ] Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and a day after the Bulgarian collapse, during a meeting with government officials, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. [ 68 ] A Bulgária assina um armistício em 29 de setembro de 1918. [67] Hindenburg e Ludendorff concluiu que o equilíbrio estratégico e operacional já tinha mudado decididamente contra as Potências Centrais e um dia após o colapso da Bulgária, durante uma reunião com funcionários do governo, insistiu em uma paz imediata liquidação. [68]

The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened for the 670,000-strong army of general Franchet d'Esperey as the Bulgarian capitulation deprived the Central Powers of the 278 infantry battalions and 1,500 guns (the equivalent of some 25 to 30 German divisions) that were previously holding the line. [ 69 ] The German high command was able to respond by sending in only seven infantry and one cavalry division but these forces were far from sufficient for a front to be reestablished. [ 69 ] O desaparecimento da frente Macedonian significava que o caminho para Budapeste e Viena foi agora aberto para o forte exército de 670.000 geral Franchet d'Esperey como a capitulação da Bulgária privou as Potências Centrais dos 278 batalhões de infantaria e 1.500 armas de fogo (o equivalente a cerca 25-30 divisões alemãs), que foram previamente exploração da linha. [69] O alto comando alemão foi capaz de responder com o envio de apenas sete infantaria e uma divisão de cavalaria, mas essas forças estavam longe de ser suficiente para uma frente para ser restabelecido. [69 ]

Ottoman Empire Império Otomano Main article: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I Ver artigo principal: Teatro do Médio Oriente da I Guerra Mundial


A British artillery battery emplaced on Mount Scopus in the Battle of Jerusalem . Uma bateria de artilharia britânica colocadas no Monte Scopus na Batalha de Jerusalém . The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the war, the secret Ottoman-German Alliance having been signed in August 1914. [ 70 ] It threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal . O Império Otomano se juntou as Potências Centrais na guerra, o segredo alemã Aliança Otomano de ter sido assinado em agosto de 1914. [70] A Rússia ameaçou caucasianos territórios e de comunicações da Grã-Bretanha com a Índia através do canal de Suez . The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns . Os britânicos e franceses abriu frentes no exterior com o Gallipoli (1915) e campanhas da Mesopotâmia . In Gallipoli, Turkey successfully repelled the British, French and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). Em Gallipoli, na Turquia repeliu os ingleses, franceses e australianos e neozelandeses Army Corps (Anzacs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the disastrous Siege of Kut (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganized and captured Baghdad in March 1917. Na Mesopotâmia, por outro lado, após o desastroso cerco de Kut (1915-1916), a British Imperial reorganizou as forças e capturou Bagdá março 1917. Further to the west, in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , initial British setbacks were overcome when they captured Jerusalem in December 1917. Mais a oeste, na Campanha do Sinai e da Palestina , reveses iniciais britânicos foram superados quando capturaram Jerusalém em dezembro de 1917. The Egyptian Expeditionary Force , under Field Marshal Edmund Allenby , broke the Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. O egípcio da Força Expedicionária , em Marechal Edmund Allenby , quebrou as forças otomanas na batalha de Megiddo , em setembro de 1918.



Russian forest trench at the Battle of Sarikamish trincheira floresta russa na batalha de Sarikamish Russian armies generally had the best of it in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha , supreme commander of the Turkish armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of conquering central Asia. exércitos russos em geral, tinha o melhor dele no. Cáucaso Enver Pasha , comandante supremo das forças armadas turcas, era ambicioso e sonhava em conquistar a Ásia central. He was, however, a poor commander. [ 71 ] He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops; insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter, he lost 86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish . [ 72 ] Ele foi, no entanto, o comandante pobres. [71] Ele lançou uma ofensiva contra os russos no Cáucaso em dezembro de 1914, com 100.000 soldados, insistindo em um ataque frontal contra as posições russas montanhosa no inverno, ele perdeu 86% de sua força na Batalha de Sarikamish . [72]

General Yudenich , the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. [ 72 ] In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Geral Yudenich , o comandante russo 1915-1916, levou os turcos fora da maioria do sul do Cáucaso com uma seqüência de vitórias. [72] Em 1917, o russo Grão-duque Nicolau assumiu o comando da frente do Cáucaso. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. Nicholas planejou uma estrada de ferro de russo na Geórgia para os territórios conquistados, para que novos suprimentos poderia ser trazido para uma nova ofensiva em 1917. However, in March 1917, (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar was overthrown in the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart. No entanto, em março de 1917, (fevereiro no calendário russo-revolucionário pré), o czar foi derrubado na Revolução de Fevereiro e as russas do Cáucaso do Exército começaram a desmoronar.



German soldiers in Jerusalem Soldados alemães em Jerusalém The army corps of Armenian volunteer units realigned under the command of General Tovmas Nazarbekian , with Dro as a civilian commissioner of the Administration for Western Armenia . O corpo de exército de unidades voluntárias armênias realinhados sob o comando do general Tovmas Nazarbekian , com Dro como um comissário civil da Administração da Armênia Ocidental . The front line had three main divisions commanded by Movses Silikyan , Andranik , and Mikhail Areshian . A linha de frente tinha três principais divisões comandadas por Movses Silikyan , Andranik e Areshian Mikhail . Another regular unit was under Colonel Korganian. Outra unidade foi regular sob o coronel Korganian. More than 40,000 men in Armenian partisan guerrilla detachments accompanied the main units. [ 73 ] Mais de 40.000 homens em armênio destacamentos da guerrilha partidária acompanhado as principais unidades. [73]

Instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office , the Arab Revolt started with the help of Britain in June 1916 at the Battle of Mecca , led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca , and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha , the Ottoman commander of Medina , resisted for more than two and half years during the Siege of Medina . [ 74 ] Instigado pelo serviço árabe da British Foreign and Commonwealth Office , a Revolta Árabe começou com a ajuda da Grã-Bretanha em junho de 1916 na Batalha de Meca , liderada pelo xerife Hussein de Meca , e terminou com a rendição Otomano de Damasco. Fakhri Pasha , o comandante otomano de Medina , resistiu por mais de dois anos e meio durante o cerco de Medina . [74]

Along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, the Senussi tribe, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. Ao longo da fronteira da Líbia e do Egito italiano britânico, o Senussi tribo, incitado e armados pelos turcos, travaram uma guerra de guerrilha escala pequena contra tropas aliadas. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to deal with the Senussi. Os britânicos foram obrigados a expedir 12 mil tropas para lidar com a Senussi. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. [ 75 ] A rebelião foi esmagada finalmente em meados de 1916. [75]

Italian participation participação italiana Main article: Italian Campaign (World War I) Ver artigo principal: Campanha italiana (Primeira Guerra Mundial)
Further information: Battles of the Isonzo Mais informações: Batalhas do Isonzo


Austro-Hungarian mountain corps in Tyrol Corpo de montanha Austro-Húngaro, no Tirol Italy had been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance . A Itália tinha sido aliada da Alemanha e do Império Austro-Húngaro desde 1882 como parte da Tríplice Aliança . However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino , Istria and Dalmatia . No entanto, a nação tinha os seus próprios desenhos no território austríaco, em Trentino , Ístria e Dalmácia . Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its alliance. [ 76 ] At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive in nature, and that Austria–Hungary was an aggressor. Roma tinha um pacto secreto com a França 1902, neutralizando assim a sua aliança. [76] No início das hostilidades, a Itália se recusou a enviar tropas, argumentando que a Tríplice Aliança foi de natureza defensiva, e que a Áustria-Hungria era um agressor. The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. O governo Austro-Húngaro iniciou negociações para assegurar a neutralidade italiana, oferecendo a colônia francesa da Tunísia em troca. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol , Julian March and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria-Hungary. Os aliados fizeram uma contra-oferta em que a Itália iria receber o Tirol do Sul , Juliano de março e território, na Dalmácia costa após a derrota da Áustria-Hungria. This was formalized by the Treaty of London . Este foi formalizado pelo Tratado de Londres . Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary on 23 May. Mais incentivada pela invasão aliada da Turquia, em abril de 1915, a Itália aderiu a Tríplice Entente e declarou guerra à Áustria-Hungria, em 23 de maio. Fifteen months later Italy declared war on Germany. Quinze meses depois, a Itália declarou guerra à Alemanha.

Militarily, the Italians had numerical superiority. Militarmente, os italianos tinham superioridade numérica. This advantage, however, was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna , a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna . Esta vantagem, no entanto, foi perdida, não só por causa do terreno difícil em que luta aconteceu, mas também porque as estratégias e táticas empregadas. marechal Luigi Cadorna , um defensor acérrimo do ataque frontal, tinha o sonho de quebrar o planalto eslovena, tendo Ljubljana e ameaçando Viena . It was a Napoleonic plan, which had no realistic chance of success in an age of barbed wire, machine guns, and indirect artillery fire, combined with hilly and mountainous terrain. Foi um napoleônicas plano, que não tinha nenhuma chance realista de sucesso em uma época de arame farpado, metralhadoras e artilharia indireta, combinada com terreno acidentado e montanhoso.

On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. Na frente do Trentino, o austro-húngaros aproveitaram o terreno montanhoso, o que favoreceu o defensor. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer. Depois de um recuo estratégico inicial, a frente manteve praticamente inalterado, enquanto austríaco Kaiserschützen e Standschützen envolvidos italiano Alpini em combate corpo-a-amargo durante todo o verão. The Austro-Hungarians counter attacked in the Altopiano of Asiago , towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916, ( Strafexpedition ), but made little progress. O austro-húngaros contra atacaram na Altopiano de Asiago , para Verona e Pádua, na primavera de 1916, ( Strafexpedition ), mas pouco progresso.

Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo River , north east of Trieste . A partir de 1915, os italianos sob Cadorna ofensivas no onze frente Isonzo ao longo do rio Isonzo , nordeste do Trieste . All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the higher ground. Todos os onze ofensivas foram repelidos pelo austro-húngaros, que detinha o mais elevado. In the summer of 1916, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia . No verão de 1916, os italianos capturaram a cidade de Gorizia . After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives. Após esta pequena vitória, a frente ficou imobilizado por mais de um ano, apesar de várias ofensivas italiano. In the autumn of 1917, thanks to the improving situation on the Eastern front, the Austro-Hungarian troops received large numbers of reinforcements, including German Stormtroopers and the elite Alpenkorps . No outono de 1917, graças à melhoria da situação na frente oriental, o Império Austro-Húngaro tropas recebeu um grande número de reforços, incluindo o alemão Stormtroopers ea elite Alpenkorps . The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. As Potências Centrais lançaram uma ofensiva esmagadora em 26 de outubro de 1917, liderado pelos alemães. They achieved a victory at Caporetto . Eles conseguiram uma vitória em Caporetto . The Italian army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (60 mi.) to reorganize, stabilising the front at the Piave River . O Exército italiano foi derrotado e recuou mais de 100 km (60 milhas). Reorganizar, estabilizando a frente no rio Piave . Since in the Battle of Caporetto the Italian Army had heavy losses, the Italian Government called to arms the so-called ' 99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99), that is, all males who were 18 years old. Uma vez na Batalha de Caporetto do Exército italiano teve pesadas perdas, o governo italiano apelou para as armas do chamado "99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99), ou seja, todos os homens que tinham 18 anos de idade. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed to break through, in a series of battles on the Piave River and, finally being decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. Em 1918, o império austro-húngaro não conseguiu romper, em uma série de batalhas no rio Piave e, finalmente, sendo derrotado na Batalha de Vittorio Veneto , em outubro daquele ano. Austria-Hungary surrendered in early November 1918. [ 77 ] [ 78 ] Áustria-Hungria entregue no início de novembro de 1918. [77] [78]

Romanian participation participação da Roménia Main article: Romania during World War I Ver artigo principal: Romênia durante a I Guerra Mundial


Marshal Joffre inspecting Romanian troops Marechal Joffre inspecionando tropas romenas Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since 1882. A Roménia tinha sido aliada com as Potências Centrais desde 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria-Hungary had itself declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation to join the war. Quando a guerra começou, no entanto, que declarou a sua neutralidade, alegando que devido a Áustria-Hungria tinha-se declarado guerra à Sérvia, a Roménia não era obrigada a aderir à guerra. When the Entente Powers promised Romania large territories of eastern Hungary ( Transylvania and Banat ), that had a large Romanian population, in exchange for Romania's declaring war on the Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality, and on 27 August 1916 the Romanian army launched an attack against Austria-Hungary. Quando a Tríplice Entente prometeu grandes territórios na Roménia, de leste a Hungria ( Transilvânia e Banat ), que tinha um romeno grande população, em troca de uma declaração de guerra da Roménia sobre as Potências Centrais, o governo romeno, renunciou a sua neutralidade, e em 27 de agosto de 1916 o exército romeno lançou um ataque contra a Áustria-Hungria. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, pushing back the Austro-Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counter attack by the forces of the Central Powers defeated the Romanian army and as a result of the Battle of Bucharest the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916. A ofensiva romeno foi inicialmente bem sucedido, empurrando para trás o húngaro tropas austro-na Transilvânia, mas um contra-ataque pelas forças do Potências Centrais derrotou o exército romeno e, como resultado da Batalha de Bucareste as Potências Centrais ocuparam Bucareste, em 06 de dezembro de 1916 . Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917 until an armistice was signed between the Central Powers and Romania on 9 December 1917. Combates na Moldávia continuou em 1917 até o armistício foi assinado entre as Potências Centrais e da Roménia em 09 de dezembro de 1917.

In January 1918, Russia, allied to Romania, had to withdraw its troops from the Romanian front and Romanian forces established control over Bessarabia . Em janeiro de 1918, a Rússia, aliada à Roménia, teve que retirar suas tropas da frente romena e as forças romenas estabelecido o controle sobre a Bessarábia . Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian and the Bolshevik Russian government following talks between 5–9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly of the territory on the unification with Romania. Embora um tratado foi assinado pelo romeno eo bolchevique governo russo após conversações entre 5-9 março 1918 sobre a retirada das forças romenas da Bessarábia no prazo de dois meses, em 27 de março de 1918 a Roménia anexado Bessarábia para o seu território, formalmente baseado em uma resolução aprovada pela assembléia local do território sobre a unificação com a Roménia.

Romania officially made peace with the Central Powers signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Roménia oficialmente as pazes com as Potências Centrais a assinatura do Tratado de Bucareste , em 7 de maio de 1918. Under that treaty Romania was obliged to cease war with the Central Powers. Segundo o tratado da Roménia foi obrigado a cessar a guerra com as Potências Centrais. Romania made small territorial concessions for Austria-Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the Carpathian Mountains and granted oil concessions for Germany. Roménia fez pequenas concessões territoriais para a Áustria-Hungria, cedendo o controle de algumas passagens na Cárpatos e concessões petrolíferas concedido para a Alemanha. On the other hand, the Central Powers recognized the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia . Por outro lado, as Potências Centrais reconheceu a soberania da Roménia sobre a Bessarábia . The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. O tratado foi renunciou em outubro de 1918 pelo Marghiloman Alexandru governo e da Roménia nominalmente re-entrou na guerra em 10 de novembro de 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne . [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000. [ 81 ] No dia seguinte, o Tratado de Bucareste foi anulada pelos termos do Armistício de Compiègne . [79] [80] Total de mortes romena 1914-1918, militares e civis, dentro das fronteiras contemporâneas, foram estimadas em 748.000. [81]

The role of India O papel da Índia Further information: Third Anglo-Afghan War and Hindu-German Conspiracy Mais informações: Terceira Guerra Anglo-Afegã e hindu-alemão Conspiração
The war began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war. A guerra começou com uma onda sem precedentes de lealdade e de boa vontade para com o Reino Unido a partir da liderança política dominante, ao contrário do receio inicial britânica de uma revolta dos índios. [82] [83] O Exército indiano , de facto, em desvantagem o exército britânico no início da guerra. India under British rule contributed greatly to the British war effort by providing men and resources. Índia sob domínio britânico, contribuiu grandemente para o esforço de guerra britânico, fornecendo homens e recursos. This was done by the Indian Congress in hope of achieving self-government as India was very much under the control of the British. Isto foi feito pelo Congresso indiano, na esperança de conseguir o autogoverno como a Índia era muito sob o controle dos ingleses. The United Kingdom disappointed the Indians by not providing self-governance, leading to the Gandhian Era in Indian history. O Reino Unido decepcionado os índios, por não prestar auto-governo, levando à Gandhi era na história indiana. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. Cerca de 1,3 milhão de soldados indianos e os trabalhadores servidos na Europa, África e Oriente Médio, enquanto que tanto o governo indiano e os príncipes enviaram grandes quantidades de comida, dinheiro e munições. In all 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. Em todos os 140.000 homens serviram na Frente Ocidental e quase 700.000 no Oriente Médio. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. [ 84 ] Acidentes de soldados indianos totalizaram 47.746 mortos e 65.126 feridos durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial I. [84]



Russian troops awaiting a German attack. As tropas russas aguardando um ataque alemão. Eastern Front Frente Oriental Initial actions ações iniciais Main article: Eastern Front (World War I) Ver artigo principal: Frente Oriental (Primeira Guerra Mundial)
While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in East Europe. Enquanto a Frente Ocidental atingiu impasse, a guerra continuou na Europa de Leste. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and German East Prussia. Planos iniciais russo chamado para invasões simultâneas do austríaco Galiza e da Alemanha Oriental Prússia. Although Russia's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, they were driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Russia's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership was instrumental in the events that unfolded. Embora inicial avanço da Rússia na Galiza foi geralmente bem sucedida, eles foram expulsos da Prússia Oriental pelo Hindenburg e Ludendorff em Tannenberg e dos Lagos da Masúria em agosto e setembro de 1914. [85] [86] A Rússia desenvolveu base industrial menos e liderança militar ineficaz foi fundamental nos acontecimentos que se desenrolaram. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated into Galicia, and in May the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland's southern frontiers. [ 87 ] On 5 August they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland. Na primavera de 1915, os russos tinham recuado para a Galiza, e em maio as Potências Centrais conseguido um avanço notável no sul das fronteiras da Polónia. [87] Em 05 de agosto, eles capturaram Varsóvia e forçou os russos a retirar da Polônia.

Russian Revolution Revolução Russa Main article: Russian Revolution (1917) Ver artigo principal: Revolução Russa (1917)
Further information: North Russia Campaign Mais informações: Campanha do Norte da Rússia


Vladimir Illyich Lenin Vladimir Lenin Illyich Despite the success of the June 1916 Brusilov Offensive in eastern Galicia , [ 88 ] dissatisfaction with the Russian government's conduct of the war grew. The success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. O sucesso foi prejudicada pela relutância dos outros generais para cometer as suas forças para apoiar a vitória. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily with Romania 's entry into the war on 27 August. e russo forças aliadas foram revividas apenas temporariamente com a Roménia s entrada "para a guerra em 27 de agosto. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austro-Hungarian units in Transylvania and Bucharest fell to the Central Powers on 6 December. As forças alemãs vieram em auxílio dos apuros unidades Austro-Húngaro na Transilvânia e Bucareste caiu para as Potências Centrais em 06 de dezembro. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin , at the end of 1916. Enquanto isso, a agitação crescia na Rússia, como o czar permaneceu na frente. Imperatriz Alexandra incompetentes regra atraía cada vez mais protestos e resultou no assassinato de seu favorito, Rasputin , no final de 1916.

In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. Em março de 1917, manifestações em Petrogrado culminaram na abdicação do czar Nicolau II ea nomeação de um fraco governo provisório , que partilhava o poder com o Soviete de Petrogrado socialistas. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. Este acordo levou à confusão e caos tanto na parte da frente e em casa. The army became increasingly ineffective. [ 87 ]



Signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9, 1918) are: 1. Count Ottokar von Czernin , 2. Richard von Kühlmann , and 3. Vasil Radoslavov A assinatura do Tratado de Brest-Litovsk (9 de fevereiro de 1918) são: 1. Count von Ottokar Czernin , 2. von Kuhlmann Richard , e 3. Radoslavov Vasil The war and the government became increasingly unpopular. A guerra eo governo tornou-se cada vez mais impopular. Discontent led to a rise in popularity of the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin . O descontentamento levou a um aumento na popularidade do bolchevique do partido, liderada por Vladimir Lenin . He promised to pull Russia out of the war and was able to gain power. Ele prometeu retirar a Rússia da guerra e foi capaz de conquistar o poder. The triumph of the Bolsheviks in November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. O triunfo dos bolcheviques em novembro foi seguido em Dezembro por um armistício e as negociações com a Alemanha. At first the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when Germany resumed the war and marched across Ukraine with impunity, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. No começo, os bolcheviques se recusou os termos alemães, mas quando a Alemanha retomou a guerra e marchou através da Ucrânia com a impunidade, o novo governo aderiu ao Tratado de Brest-Litovsk , em 3 de março de 1918. It took Russia out of the war and ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces , parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. [ 89 ] The manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive, however, and secured relatively little food or other materiel Levou a Rússia fora da guerra e cedeu vastos territórios, incluindo a Finlândia, o Báltico províncias , partes da Polônia e da Ucrânia para as Potências Centrais. [89] A mão de obra necessária para a ocupação alemã do território russo antigo pode ter contribuído para o fracasso da Ofensiva da Primavera, no entanto, assegurado e pouca comida ou outros relativamente material

With the adoption of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. Com a adopção do Tratado de Brest-Litovsk, a Entente não existia mais. The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources and, to a lesser extent, to support the "Whites" (as opposed to "Reds") in the Russian Civil War . [ 90 ] Allied troops landed in Archangel and in Vladivostok . As potências aliadas lideradas uma escala pequena invasão da Rússia, em parte para impedir a Alemanha de explorar os recursos da Rússia e, em menor medida, para apoiar os "brancos" (por oposição aos "vermelhos") na Guerra Civil Russa . [90] As tropas aliadas desembarcaram em Arcanjo e em Vladivostok .

Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II declares victory Alemanha do Kaiser Wilhelm II declara vitória

1917 German poster: Wilhelm II blames the Allies for fighting on. 1917 Cartaz alemão: Wilhelm II culpa os Aliados para lutar por diante. In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun , the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies, effectively declaring themselves the victors. Em dezembro de 1916, após dez meses brutal da Batalha de Verdun , os alemães tentaram negociar uma paz com os Aliados, declarando-se efetivamente os vencedores. Soon after, US President Wilson attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Logo depois, presidente dos EUA, Wilson tentou intervir como um pacificador, pedindo uma nota para ambas as partes ao estado suas demandas. Lloyd George's War Cabinet considered the German offer as a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. Guerra de Lloyd George Gabinete considerada a oferta alemã como uma manobra para criar divisões entre os aliados. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the US was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages". Após escândalo inicial e de muita deliberação, tomaram nota de Wilson como um esforço separado, sinalizando que os EUA estavam prestes a entrar na guerra contra a Alemanha após o "ultraje submarino". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views". Enquanto os Aliados debateu uma resposta à oferta de Wilson, os alemães optaram por rejeitar em favor de "uma troca directa de pontos de vista". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. Aprendizagem da resposta alemã, os governos dos Aliados eram livres para fazer exigências claro em sua resposta de 14 de Janeiro. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Roumania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. Eles procuraram a restauração dos danos, a evacuação dos territórios ocupados, as reparações para a França, Rússia e Romênia, e um reconhecimento do princípio das nacionalidades. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Roumanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland". Isto incluiu a libertação dos italianos, eslavos, romenos, Checoslovacos, ea criação de um "livre e unida a Polónia". On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. [ 91 ] Sobre a questão da segurança, os Aliados procuraram garantias que impeçam ou limitem as guerras do futuro, com sanções, como condição para qualquer acordo de paz. [91]

1917–1918 1917-1918

French troopers under General Gouraud , with their machine guns amongst the ruins of a cathedral near the Marne, driving back the Germans. tropas francesas sob o general Gouraud , com suas metralhadoras, entre as ruínas de uma catedral perto do Marne, dirigindo de volta os alemães. 1918 1918

German film crew recording the action. equipe do filme alemão de gravação da ação. Developments in 1917 A evolução em 1917 Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918. Eventos de 1917 foi decisiva para acabar com a guerra, embora seus efeitos não foram plenamente sentidas até 1918.

The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. O bloqueio naval britânico começou a ter um impacto sério na Alemanha. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. Em resposta, em fevereiro de 1917, o Estado-Maior alemão convencido chanceler Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg declarar guerra submarina irrestrita, com o objetivo de passar fome Grã-Bretanha da guerra. Tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. Tonelagem afundada subiu acima de 500.000 toneladas por mês de fevereiro a julho. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. Ela chegou a 860 mil toneladas em abril. After July, the newly re-introduced convoy system became extremely effective in reducing the U-boat threat. Depois de julho, o recém re-introduzida comboio sistema tornou-se extremamente eficaz na redução do U-boat ameaça. Britain was safe from starvation and German industrial output fell. Grã-Bretanha foi protegida da fome e da produção industrial alemã caiu.

On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive , the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused their orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. Then, mutinies afflicted an additional 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. The other Allied forces attacked but sustained tremendous casualties. [ 92 ] However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. [ 93 ] Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain , who suspended bloody large-scale attacks.



Haut-Rhin , France, 1917 The victory of Austria–Hungary and Germany at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies at the Rapallo Conference to form the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands.

In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia. This released large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, the leaders of the Central Powers and the Allies became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory. [ 94 ]

Entry of the United States Main article: United States in World War I
Non-Intervention The United States originally pursued a policy of non-intervention , avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When a German U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania in 1915, with 128 Americans aboard, US President Woodrow Wilson vowed, "America is too proud to fight" and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. He repeatedly warned the US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law and US ideas of human rights. Wilson was under pressure from former president Theodore Roosevelt , who denounced German acts as "piracy". [ 95 ] Wilson's desire to have a seat at negotiations at war's end to advance the League of Nations also played a role. [ 96 ] Wilson's Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan , resigned in protest at what he felt was the President's decidedly warmongering diplomacy. Other factors contributing to the US entry into the war include the suspected German sabotage of Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey , and the Kingsland Explosion in what is now Lyndhurst, New Jersey .

Making the case In January 1917, after the Navy pressured the Kaiser, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. Britain's secret Royal Navy cryptanalytic group, Room 40 , had broken the German diplomatic code. They intercepted a proposal from Berlin (the Zimmermann Telegram ) to Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States, should the US join. The proposal suggested that if the US were to enter the war then Mexico should declare war against the United States and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the United States from joining the Allies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona that Mexico lost during the Mexican-American War 70 years earlier. [ 97 ]

Germany also lent a minor amount of support to Mexico during its border war with the United States , such as sending equipment and military advisors. This aid, though insubstantial, nonetheless reinforced growing interventionist sentiment in the US. [ citation needed ]



President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in official relations with Germany on 3 February 1917. US declaration of war on Germany Wikisource has original text related to this article: Wikisource tem texto original relacionado a este artigo:
Woodrow Wilson declares war on Germany
After the British revealed the telegram to the United States, President Wilson, who had won reelection on his keeping the country out of the war, released the captured telegram as a way of building support for US entry into the war. He had previously claimed neutrality, while calling for the arming of US merchant ships delivering munitions to combatant Britain and quietly supporting the British blockading of German ports and mining of international waters, preventing the shipment of food from America and elsewhere to combatant Germany. After submarines sank seven US merchant ships and the publication of the Zimmerman telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the US Congress declared on 6 April 1917. [ 98 ]

Crucial to US participation was the sweeping domestic propaganda campaign executed by the Committee on Public Information , overseen by George Creel . [ 99 ] The campaign consisted of tens of thousands of government-selected community leaders giving brief carefully scripted pro-war speeches at thousands of public gatherings. [ 100 ] Along with other branches of government and private vigilante groups like the American Protective League , it also included the general repression and harassment of people either opposed to American entry into the war or of German heritage. [ 99 ] Other forms of propaganda included newsreels , photos, large-print posters, magazine and newspaper articles, and so forth. Additionally, during World War I, Woodrow Wilson placed a great importance on children , especially the Boy Scouts of America, asking them to encourage war support and educate the public about the importance of the war. They helped distribute these war pamphlets, helped sell war bonds, and helped to drive nationalism and support for the war. [ 101 ]

First active US participation

American soldiers on the Piave front hurling a shower of hand grenades into the Austrian trenches

Two American soldiers run towards a bunker. The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power". The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act , it drafted 2.8 million men [ 102 ] and by summer 1918 was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the US Congress gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act . Germany had miscalculated, believing it would be many more months before they would arrive and that the arrival could be stopped by U-boats. [ 103 ]

The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown , Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of US Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted US units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The US rejected the first proposition and accepted the second. General John J. Pershing , American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up US units to be used as reinforcements for British Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de guerre for their actions at Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood and Sechault. [ 104 ] AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders because of the large loss of life. [ 105 ]

Austrian offer of separate peace In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, with his wife's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany, a diplomatic catastrophe. [ 106 ] [ 107 ]

German Spring Offensive of 1918 Main article: Spring Offensive
German General Erich Ludendorff drew up plans ( codenamed Operation Michael ) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to strike a decisive blow before significant US forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918 with an attack on British forces near Amiens . German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (40 miles). [ 108 ]

British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics , also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier . Previously, attacks had been characterized by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive of 1918, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. German success relied greatly on the element of surprise. [ 109 ]

The front moved to within 120 kilometers (75 mi) of Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday . Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery , the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. This situation was not helped by the supply lines now being stretched as a result of their advance. [ 110 ] The sudden stop was also a result of the four Australian Imperial Force (AIF) divisions that were "rushed" down, thus doing what no other army had done and stopping the German advance in its tracks. During that time the first Australian division was hurriedly sent north again to stop the second German breakthrough.



British 55th (West Lancashire) Infantry Division troops blinded by tear gas during the Battle of Estaires , 10 April 1918. General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements. Pershing sought instead to field American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. [ 111 ] General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the allied forces. Haig, Petain and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating role, rather than a directing role and the British, French and US commands operated largely independently. [ 111 ]

Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive with limited territorial gains for Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck , broadly towards Paris. Operation Marne was launched on 15 July, attempting to encircle Reims and beginning the Second Battle of the Marne . The resulting counterattack, starting the Hundred Days Offensive , marked their first successful Allied offensive of the war.

By 20 July the Germans were back across the Marne at their Kaiserschlacht starting lines, [ 112 ] having achieved nothing. Following this last phase of the war in the West, the German Army never again regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained stormtroops.

Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was 53 percent of 1913 levels.

New states under war zone In 1918, the internationally recognized Azerbaijan Democratic Republic , Democratic Republic of Armenia and Democratic Republic of Georgia bordering the Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire were established, as well as the unrecognized Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic . Later, these unrecognized states were eliminated by Azerbaijan and Turkey.

Further information: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
In 1918, the Dashnaks of the Armenian national liberation movement declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA) through the Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians (unified form of Armenian National Councils ) after the dissolution of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic . Tovmas Nazarbekian became the first Commander-in-chief of the DRA. Enver Pasha ordered the creation of a new army to be named the Army of Islam . He ordered the Army of Islam into the DRA, with the goal of taking Baku on the Caspian Sea . This new offensive was strongly opposed by the Germans . In early May 1918, the Ottoman army attacked the newly declared DRA. Although the Armenians managed to inflict one defeat on the Ottomans at the Battle of Sardarabad , the Ottoman army won a later battle and scattered the Armenian army. The Republic of Armenia signed the Treaty of Batum in June 1918. [ 113 ]

Allied victory: summer and autumn 1918 Main articles: Hundred Days Offensive and Weimar Republic
The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918. The Battle of Amiens developed with III Corps British Fourth Army on the left, the French First Army on the right, and the Australian and Canadian Corps spearheading the offensive in the centre through Harbonnières . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] It involved 414 tanks of the Mark IV and Mark V type, and 120,000 men. They advanced 12 kilometers (7 miles) into German-held territory in just seven hours. Erich Ludendorff referred to this day as the "Black Day of the German army". [ 114 ] [ 116 ]

The Australian-Canadian spearhead at Amiens, a battle that was the beginning of Germany's downfall, [ 47 ] helped pull the British armies to the north and the French armies to the south forward. While German resistance on the British Fourth Army front at Amiens stiffened, after an advance as far as 14 miles (23 km) and concluded the battle there, the French Third Army lengthened the Amiens front on 10 August, when it was thrown in on the right of the French First Army, and advanced 4 miles (6 km) liberating Lassigny in fighting which lasted until 16 August. South of the French Third Army, General Charles Mangin (The Butcher) drove his French Tenth Army forward at Soissons on 20 August to capture eight thousand prisoners, two hundred guns and the Aisne heights overlooking and menacing the German position north of the Vesle. [ 117 ] Another "Black day" as described by Erich Ludendorff.

Meanwhile General Byng of the Third British Army, reporting that the enemy on his front was thinning in a limited withdrawal, was ordered to attack with 200 tanks toward Bapaume, opening the Battle of Albert , with the specific orders of "To break the enemy's front, in order to outflank the enemies present battle front" (opposite the British Fourth Army at Amiens). [ 47 ] Allied leaders had now realized that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives and it was better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. Attacks were being undertaken in quick order to take advantage of the successful advances on the flanks and then broken off when that attack lost its initial impetus. [ 117 ]

The British Third Army's 15-mile (24 km) front north of Albert progressed after stalling for a day against the main resistance line to which the enemy had withdrawn. [ 118 ] Rawlinson's Fourth British Army was able to battle its left flank forward between Albert and the Somme straightening the line between the advanced positions of the Third Army and the Amiens front which resulted in recapturing Albert at the same time. [ 117 ] On 26 August the British First Army on the left of the Third Army was drawn into the battle extending it northward to beyond Arras. The Canadian Corps already being back in the vanguard of the First Army fought their way from Arras eastward 5 miles (8 km) astride the heavily defended Arras-Cambrai before reaching the outer defences of the Hindenburg Line , breaching them on the 28 and 29 August. Bapaume fell on the 29 August to the New Zealand Division of the Third Army and the Australians, still leading the advance of the Fourth Army, were again able to push forward at Amiens to take Peronne and Mont Saint-Quentin on 31 August. Further south the French First and Third Armies had slowly fought forward while the Tenth Army, who had by now crossed the Ailette and was east of the Chemin des Dames, was now near to the Alberich position of the Hindenburg Line. [ 119 ] During the last week of August the pressure along a 70-mile (113 km) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines." [ 117 ] Even to the north in Flanders the British Second and Fifth Armies during August and September were able to make progress taking prisoners and positions that were previously denied them. [ 119 ]



Close-up view of an American major in the basket of an observation balloon flying over territory near front lines On 2 September the Canadian Corps outflanking of the Hindenburg line, with the breaching of the Wotan Position, made it possible for the Third Army to advance and sent repercussions all along the Western Front. That same day Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) had no choice but to issue orders to six armies for withdrawal back into the Hindenburg Line in the south, behind the Canal du Nord on the Canadian-First Army's front and back to a line east of the Lys in the north, giving up without a fight the salient seized in the previous April. [ 120 ] According to Ludendorff “We had to admit the necessity ... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle.” [ 121 ]

In nearly four weeks of fighting since 8 August, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken, 75,000 by the BEF and the rest by the French. Since "The Black Day of the German Army" the German High Command realized the war was lost and made attempts for a satisfactory end. The day after the battle Ludenforff told Colonel Mertz "We cannot win the war any more, but we must not lose it either." On 11 August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it and replied, "I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended." On 13 August at Spa , Hindenburg, Ludendorff, Chancellor and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and on the following day the German Crown Council decided victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations, to which the Kaiser responded by instructing Hintz to seek the mediation of the Queen of the Netherlands. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden "Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier." On 10 September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On the 14 September Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected and on 24 September OHL informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. [ 119 ]

September saw the Germans continuing to fight strong rear guard actions and launching numerous counter attacks on lost positions, with only a few succeeding and then only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. Further small advances eastward would follow the Third Army victory at Ivincourt on 12 September, the Fourth Armies at Epheny on 18 September and the French gain of Essigny-le-Grand a day later. On 24 September a final assault by both the British and French on a 4 mile (6 km) front would come within 2 miles (3 km) of St. Quentin. [ 119 ] With the outposts and preliminary defensive lines of the Siegfried and Alberich Positions eliminated the Germans were now completely back in the Hindenburg Line. With the Wotan position of that line already breached and the Siegfried position in danger of being turned from the north the time had now come for an assault on the whole length of the line.

The Allied attack on the Hindenburg Line began on 26 September including US soldiers. The still-green American troops suffered problems coping with supply trains for large units on a difficult landscape. [ 122 ] The following week cooperating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge , forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. [ 123 ] The last Belgian town to be liberated before the armistice was Ghent, which the Germans held as a pivot until Allied artillery was brought up. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear-guard actions.

When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 September, the Allies gained control of Serbia and Greece. Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months, suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence. [ 126 ] [ 127 ]

Meanwhile, news of Germany's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour" of the German Navy. Knowing the government of Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel . Many rebelled and were arrested, refusing to be part of a naval offensive which they believed to be suicidal. Ludendorff took the blame—the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. The reserves had been used up, but US troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. [ 128 ]

Having suffered over 6 million casualties, Germany moved toward peace. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Telegraphic negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the vain hope that better terms would be offered than by the British and French. Instead Wilson demanded the abdication of the Kaiser. There was no resistance when the social democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born: the Weimar Republic. [ 129 ]

Armistices and capitulations

In the forest of Compiègne after agreeing to the armistice that ended the war, Foch is seen second from the right. The carriage seen in the background, where the armistice was signed, later was chosen as the symbolic setting of Pétain's June 1940 armistice. It was moved to Berlin as a prize, but due to Allied bombing it was eventually moved to Crawinkel , Thuringia , where it was deliberately destroyed by SS troops in 1945. [ 130 ] The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice on 29 September 1918 at Saloniki . [ 131 ] On 30 October the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Moudros . [ 131 ]

On 24 October the Italians began a push which rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto . This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto , which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine and Trieste. On 3 November Austria–Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice . The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian Commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua , on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy .

Following the outbreak of the German Revolution , a republic was proclaimed on 9 November. The Kaiser fled to the Netherlands. On 11 November an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne . At 11 am on 11 November 1918; "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month"; a ceasefire came into effect. Opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions. Canadian Private George Lawrence Price is traditionally regarded as the last soldier killed in the Great War: he was shot by a German sniper at 10:57 and died at 10:58. [ 132 ]

Allied superiority and the stab-in-the-back legend, November 1918 In November 1918 the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany, yet at the time of the armistice, no Allied soldier had set foot on German soil in anger and Berlin was still almost 900 mi (1,400 km) from the Western Front. The Kaiser's armies had also retreated from the battlefield in good order which enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been defeated. This resulted in the stab-in-the-back legend [ 133 ] [ 134 ] which attributed Germany's losing the war not to its inability to continue fighting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public's failure to respond to its "patriotic calling" and the intentional sabotaging of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists and Bolsheviks.

A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. Later treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the Turkish War of Independence ) and a final peace treaty was signed between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey , at Lausanne on 24 July 1923.

Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles treaty was signed in 1919; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally the last formal peace treaties were not signed until the Treaty of Lausanne. Under its terms, the Allied forces divested Constantinople on 23 August 1923.

Technology Tecnologia See also: Technology during World War I and Weapons of World War I


Armoured cars The First World War began as a clash of 20-century technology and 19th-century tactics , with inevitably large casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernized and were making use of telephone, wireless communication , [ 135 ] armoured cars , tanks , [ 136 ] and aircraft . Infantry formations were reorganized, so that 100 man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre. Instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured. Artillery also underwent a revolution.

In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone . Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries.

Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy indirect fire. She employed 150 and 210 mm howitzers in 1914 when the typical French and British guns were only 75 and 105 mm. The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm and 420 mm guns, and already by the beginning of the war had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer ideally suited for trench warfare. [ 137 ]

Much of the combat involved trench warfare , where hundreds often died for each yard gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during the First World War. Such battles include Ypres , the Marne , Cambrai , the Somme , Verdun , and Gallipoli . The Haber process of nitrogen fixation was employed to provide the German forces with a constant supply of gunpowder, in the face of British naval blockade. [ 138 ] Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties [ 139 ] and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head-wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet , led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet , worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm , a design, with improvements, still in use today.

" Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!... Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning." - Wilfred Owen , DULCE ET DECORUM EST , 1917 [ 140 ]
The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine , mustard gas and phosgene . Few war casualties were caused by gas, [ 141 ] as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks . The use of chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing were both outlawed by the 1907 Hague Conventions, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, [ 142 ] though they captured the public imagination. [ 143 ]

The most powerful land-based weapons were railway guns weighing hundreds of tons apiece. These were nicknamed Big Berthas , even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun , able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (60 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb). While the Allies had railway guns, German models severely out-ranged and out-classed them.



RAF Sopwith Camel Fixed-wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914 the military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack . To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. [ 144 ] Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918. [ 145 ]

German U-boats ( submarines ) were deployed after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, they were employed by the Kaiserliche Marine in a strategy to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar , 1917), blimps , hunter-killer submarines ( HMS R&-1 , 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons , and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). [ 146 ] To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need.



British Vickers machine gun

Old England first, 1916 Trenches, machineguns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanized warfare . The first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability became an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds and showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Light automatic weapons also were introduced, such as the Lewis Gun and Browning automatic rifle .

Manned observation balloons , floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes . [ 147 ] If there was an enemy air attack, the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output) and smaller versions would not be developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice. [ 148 ] Recognized for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets of enemy aircraft.



Johnson's Nieuport 11 armed with Le Prieur rockets for attacking observation balloons. To defend against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets were even tried. Blimps and balloons contributed to air-to-air combat among aircraft, because of their reconnaissance value, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines. The resulting panic took several squadrons of fighters from France. [ 144 ] [ 148 ]

Another new weapon, flamethrowers , were first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, they were a powerful, demoralizing weapon and caused terror on the battlefield. It was a dangerous weapon to wield, as its heavy weight made operators vulnerable targets.

Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for wheeled vehicles eventually rendered trench railways obsolete.

War crimes Genocide and ethnic cleansing Ottoman Empire Império Otomano Main article: Ottoman casualties of World War I
See also: Armenian Genocide , Assyrian Genocide , Greek genocide , and Genocide denial
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Christian population, with the most prominent among them being the deportation and massacres of Armenians (similar policies were enacted against the Assyrians and Ottoman Greeks ) during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide . [ 149 ] The Ottomans saw the entire Armenian population as an enemy [ 150 ] that had chosen to side with Russia at the beginning of the war. [ 151 ] In early 1915, a number of Armenian nationalist groups, such as the Armenakan , Dashnak and Hunchak organizations, joined the Russian forces, and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law . A limpeza étnica do Império Cristão da população Otomano a, com o mais proeminente entre eles, sendo a deportação eo massacre de armênios (políticas similares foram decretadas contra os assírios e gregos Otomano ) durante os últimos anos do Império Otomano é considerado genocídio . [149] Os otomanos viu o armênio população como um inimigo [150] que tinha escolhido a lado com a Rússia no início da guerra. [151] Em 1915 adiantado, um número de grupos nacionalistas arménios, como o Armenakan , Dashnak e Hunchak organizações , juntou-se às forças russas, eo governo otomano usado isso como pretexto para a questão da Lei Tehcir . This authorized the deportation of the Armenians from eastern Anatolia to Syria between 1915 and 1917. Este autorizou a deportação dos armênios da Anatólia Oriental para a Síria entre 1915 e 1917. The exact number of deaths is unknown, although Balakian gives a range of 250,000 to 1.5 million for the deaths of Armenians, [ 152 ] the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates over 1 million. [ 149 ] The government of Turkey has consistently rejected charges of genocide , arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine or disease during the First World War. [ 153 ] O número exato de mortes é desconhecida, embora Balakian dá uma faixa de 250.000 a 1,5 milhões de euros para as mortes de armênios, [152] a Associação Internacional dos Estudiosos do Genocídio estima que mais de 1 milhão. [149] O governo da Turquia tem sistematicamente rejeitado as acusações de genocídio , argumentando que aqueles que morreram foram vítimas de confrontos inter-étnicos, fome ou doença durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial. [153]

Russian Empire Império Russo Main article: Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire Ver artigo principal: pogroms anti-judaico no Império Russo
See also: Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia, 1914-1915 , Volhynia , and Volga Germans Veja também: ocupação russa do Leste da Galiza, 1914-1915 , Volhynia , e os alemães do Volga
Approximately 200,000 Germans living in Volhynia and about 600,000 Jews were deported by the Russian authorities. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In 1916, an order was issued to deport around 650,000 Volga Germans to the east as well, but the Russian Revolution prevented this from being carried out. [ 157 ] Many pogroms accompanied the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War , 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Cerca de 200.000 alemães que vivem em Volhynia e cerca de 600.000 judeus foram deportados pelas autoridades russas. [154] [155] [156] Em 1916, foi emitida uma ordem de expulsão de cerca de 650.000 alemães do Volga , a leste, bem como, mas a Revolução Russa impedido isto de ser realizado. [157] Muitos pogroms acompanharam a Revolução de 1917 ea subsequente Guerra Civil Russa , 60,000-200,000 judeus civis foram mortos nas atrocidades em todo o antigo Império Russo. [158] [159]

Rape of Belgium Estupro da Bélgica Main article: Rape of Belgium Ver artigo principal: Estupro da Bélgica
In Belgium, German troops, in fear of French and Belgian guerrilla fighters, or francs-tireurs , massacred townspeople in Andenne (211 dead), Tamines (384 dead), and Dinant (612 dead). Na Bélgica, as tropas alemãs, com medo de combatentes da guerrilha belga e francês, ou franco-tireurs , cidadãos massacrados em Andenne (211 mortos), Tamines (384 mortos), e Dinant (612 mortos). On 25 August 1914, the Germans set fire to the town of Leuven , burned the library containing about 230,000 books, killed 209 civilians and forced 42,000 to evacuate. Em 25 de agosto de 1914, os alemães incendiaram a cidade de Leuven , queimaram a biblioteca contendo cerca de 230 mil livros, mataram 209 civis e obrigou a evacuar 42 mil. These actions brought worldwide condemnation. [ 160 ] Essas ações trouxeram condenação mundial. [160]

Soldiers' experiences "Experiências Soldados Main articles: List of surviving veterans of World War I , World War I casualties , Commonwealth War Graves Commission , and American Battle Monuments Commission Ver artigo principal: Lista de sobrevivente dos veteranos da I Guerra Mundial , I Guerra Mundial vítimas , Commonwealth War Graves da Comissão , e American Battle Monuments Comissão


The First Contingent of the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps to the 1 Lincolns , training in Bermuda for the Western Front, Winter 1914–1915. O primeiro contingente do Corpo de Voluntários das Bermudas Rifle para o 1 Lincoln , a formação em Bermuda para a Frente Ocidental, Inverno 1914-1915. One in four survived the war. Um em cada quatro sobreviveram à guerra. The soldiers of the war were initially volunteers, except for Italy, but increasingly were conscripted into service. Os soldados da guerra eram inicialmente voluntários, com exceção para a Itália, mas cada vez mais foram recrutados em serviço. Britain's Imperial War Museum has collected more than 2,500 recordings of soldiers' personal accounts and selected transcripts, edited by military author Max Arthur , have been published. Britain's Imperial War Museum recolheu mais de 2.500 gravações de contas pessoais de soldados e transcrições selecionados, editados pelos militares autor Max Arthur , foram publicados. The museum believes that historians have not taken full account of this material and accordingly has made the full archive of recordings available to authors and researchers. [ 161 ] Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves. O museu acredita que os historiadores não tenham plenamente em conta este material e, consequentemente, fez com que o arquivo completo de gravações disponíveis aos autores e pesquisadores. [161] Sobrevivendo veteranos, voltando para casa, muitas vezes descobri que eles só poderão discutir suas experiências entre si. Grouping together, they formed "veterans' associations" or "Legions". Agrupamento juntos, eles formaram as associações de veteranos de guerra "ou" Legions ".

Prisoners of war Os prisioneiros de guerra

This photograph shows an emaciated Indian Army soldier who survived the Siege of Kut . Esta fotografia mostra um soldado do Exército indiano magro que sobreviveram ao cerco de Kut . About 8 million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. Cerca de 8 milhões de homens se renderam e foram mantidos em campos de prisioneiros de guerra durante a guerra. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Convention on fair treatment of prisoners of war . Todas as nações se comprometeram a seguir a Convenção de Haia sobre o tratamento justo dos prisioneiros de guerra . A POW's rate of survival was generally much higher than their peers at the front. [ 162 ] Individual surrenders were uncommon. POW's A taxa de sobrevivência era geralmente muito maior do que seus pares na frente. [162] rendições individuais eram raros. Large units usually surrendered en masse. Grandes unidades normalmente entregue em massa. At the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. Na Batalha de Tannenberg 92.000 russos renderam. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Quando a guarnição sitiada de Kaunas entregue em 1915, cerca de 20.000 russos tornaram-se prisioneiros. Over half of Russian losses were prisoners (as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed); for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Mais da metade das perdas russas foram presos (como proporção dos capturados, feridos ou mortos), para a Áustria-Hungria 32%, para a Itália 26%, para a França 12%, 9% para a Alemanha, a Grã-Bretanha para 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.-3.5 [ clarification needed ] million men as prisoners.) From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners. [ 163 ] Presos dos exércitos aliados totalizaram cerca de 1,4 milhão (não incluindo a Rússia, que perdeu 2.-3.5 [ esclarecimentos necessários ] milhões de homens como prisioneiros.) De as Potências Centrais cerca de 3,3 milhões de homens se tornaram prisioneiros. [163]

Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Alemanha representava 2,5 milhões de prisioneiros, a Rússia realizou 2,9 milhões, enquanto a Grã-Bretanha e França realizou cerca de 720.000. Most were captured just prior to the Armistice. A maioria foi capturado pouco antes do Armistício. The US held 48,000. Os EUA procederam a 48.000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Once prisoners reached a camp, in general, conditions were satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. O momento mais perigoso foi o ato de rendição, quando os soldados foram impotentes, por vezes, mortos a tiros. [164] [165] Uma vez que os presos chegaram a um acampamento, em geral, as condições eram satisfatórias (e muito melhor do que na II Guerra Mundial), graças em parte para os esforços da Cruz Vermelha Internacional e inspecções por parte dos países neutros. Conditions were terrible in Russia, starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia died. As condições eram terríveis na Rússia, a fome era comum para os prisioneiros e civis, cerca de 15-20% dos presos na Rússia morreram. In Germany food was scarce, but only 5% died. [ 166 ] [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Na Alemanha, a comida era escassa, mas apenas 5% morreram. [166] [167] [168]

The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. [ 169 ] Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut , in Mesopotamia , in April 1916, 4,250 died in captivity. [ 170 ] Although many were in very bad condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia . O Império Otomano frequentemente tratados os prisioneiros de guerra mal. [169] Alguns Império 11.800 soldados britânicos, a maioria deles índios, tornou-se presos após o cerco de Kut , na Mesopotâmia , em abril de 1916, 4.250 morreram em cativeiro. [170] Embora muitos foram em muito más condições quando capturados, os oficiais otomanos forçou a marcha 1.100 quilômetros (684 milhas) ao Anatólia . A survivor said: "we were driven along like beasts, to drop out was to die." [ 171 ] The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains . Um sobrevivente disse: "Fomos levados, juntamente como animais, o abandono era morrer." [171] Os sobreviventes foram forçados a construir uma ferrovia através da Montanhas Taurus .

In Russia, where the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917 they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War. Na Rússia, onde os prisioneiros da Legião Tcheca do exército austro-húngaro foi lançado em 1917, re-armou-se e tornou-se uma força diplomática e militar durante a Guerra Civil Russa.

While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of which had to serve as forced labor , eg in France until 1920. Enquanto os prisioneiros aliados das Potências Centrais foram rapidamente enviados para casa no fim das hostilidades, o mesmo tratamento não foi concedido ao Poder Central prisioneiros dos Aliados e da Rússia, muitos dos quais tiveram de servir como trabalho forçado , por exemplo, em França até 1920 . They were only released after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council . [ 172 ] There were still German prisoners being held in Russia as late as 1924. [ 173 ] Eles só foram liberados após muitas abordagens pela Cruz Vermelha para o Conselho Supremo das Forças Aliadas . [172] Há ainda estavam sendo mantidos prisioneiros alemães na Rússia, tão tarde quanto 1924. [173]

Military attachés and war correspondents Os adidos militares e correspondentes de guerra Main article: Military attachés and war correspondents in the First World War Ver artigo principal: Os adidos militares e os correspondentes de guerra na Primeira Guerra Mundial
Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Observadores militares e civis de cada grande potência acompanhou de perto o curso da guerra. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern " embedded " positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Muitos foram capazes de informar sobre os acontecimentos de uma perspectiva um pouco parecido ao moderno " incorporado "posições opostas dentro da terra e das forças navais. These military attachés and other observers prepared voluminous first-hand accounts of the war and analytical papers. Estes adidos militares e outros observadores preparados contas volumosos em primeira-mão da guerra e artigos analíticos.

For example, former US Army Captain Granville Fortescue followed the developments of the Gallipoli Campaign from an embedded perspective within the ranks of the Turkish defenders; and his report was passed through Turkish censors before being printed in London and New York. [ 174 ] However, this observer's role was abandoned when the US entered the war, as Fortescue immediately re-enlisted, sustaining wounds at Forest of Argonne in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive , September 1918. [ 175 ] Por exemplo, o ex-capitão do Exército dos EUA Granville Fortescue seguiram a evolução da campanha de Gallipoli partir de uma perspectiva incorporado nas fileiras dos defensores turcos, e seu relatório foi aprovado por censores turco antes de ser impresso em Londres e Nova York. [174] No entanto, observador este papel foi abandonado quando os EUA entraram na guerra, como Fortescue imediatamente alistou-se, sustentando feridas na Floresta de Argonne na Meuse-Argonne Ofensiva de setembro de 1918. [175]

In-depth observer narratives of the war and more narrowly focused professional journal articles were written soon after the war; and these post-war reports conclusively illustrated the battlefield destructiveness of this conflict. narrativas observador em profundidade da guerra e um foco mais estreito artigos de revistas profissionais foram escritas logo após a guerra, e estes relatórios pós-guerra conclusiva ilustrou a destruição do campo de batalha do conflito. This was not the first time the tactics of entrenched positions for infantry defended with machine guns and artillery became vitally important. Esta não foi a primeira vez que as táticas de posições em trincheiras para a infantaria defendeu com metralhadoras e artilharia tornou-se extremamente importante. The Russo-Japanese War had been closely observed by Military attachés, war correspondents and other observers; but, from a 21st Century perspective, it is now apparent that a range of tactical lessons were disregarded or not used in the preparations for war in Europe and throughout the Great War. [ 176 ] A Guerra Russo-Japonesa foi observada de perto pelos adidos militares, correspondentes de guerra e outros observadores, mas, a partir de uma perspectiva do século 21, agora é evidente que uma série de lições táticas foram consideradas ou não utilizado na preparação para a guerra na Europa e em toda a Grande Guerra. [176]

Support and opposition to the war Apoio e oposição à guerra Main articles: Opposition to World War I and French Army Mutinies (1917) Ver artigo principal: Oposição à I Guerra Mundial e Exército motins franceses (1917)
Support Suporte The war was primarily supported by nationalists, industrial producers, and imperialists. A guerra foi impulsionado principalmente por nacionalistas, os produtores industriais e imperialistas.

In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as Yugoslav nationalist leader Ante Trumbić in the Balkans strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia . [ 177 ] The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London, Trumbić led the Committee. [ 177 ] Nos Balcãs, nacionalistas iugoslavos como líder nacionalista Jugoslava Ante Trumbić nos Balcãs fortemente apoiado a guerra, desejando a liberdade de iugoslavos da Áustria-Hungria e outras potências estrangeiras e da criação de um Estado independente da Jugoslávia . [177] O Comité jugoslava foi formada em Paris, em 30 de abril de 1915, mas logo mudou sua sede para Londres, Trumbić levou o Comité. [177]

In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. [ 178 ] In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence. [ 178 ] No Oriente Médio, o nacionalismo árabe cresceu nos territórios otomanos, em resposta à ascensão do nacionalismo turco durante a guerra, com os líderes nacionalistas árabes defendem a criação de um pan-árabe do Estado. [178] Em 1916, a Revolta Árabe começou em otomano territórios controlados do Oriente Médio em um esforço para alcançar a independência. [178]

Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. nacionalismo italiano foi agitado pela eclosão da guerra e foi inicialmente fortemente apoiada por uma variedade de facções políticas. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. [ 179 ] The Italian Liberal Party under the leadership of Paolo Boselli promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and utilized the Dante Aligheri Society to promote Italian nationalism. [ 180 ] Um dos mais populares e destacados apoiantes nacionalistas italianos da guerra foi Gabriele d'Annunzio que promoveu italiano irredentismo e ajudou a influenciar o público italiano para apoio à intervenção na guerra. [179] O Partido Liberal italiano , sob a liderança de Paolo Boselli promoveu a intervenção na guerra ao lado dos Aliados e utilizou o Dante Aligheri sociedade para promover o nacionalismo italiano. [180]

A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. [ 181 ] Initially European socialists became split on national lines with the conception of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overstepped by their support for war. [ 182 ] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their country's intervention in the war. [ 183 ] Um número de partidos socialistas inicialmente apoiado a guerra, quando começou em agosto de 1914. [181] Inicialmente os socialistas europeus tornou-se dividida em linhas nacionais, com a concepção de conflito de classe realizada pelos socialistas radicais, como os marxistas e sindicalistas sendo ultrapassado pelo seu apoio à guerra. [182] Quando a guerra começou, austríacos, franceses, alemães e russos socialistas britânicos seguiram a corrente nacionalista aumento do apoio do país a sua intervenção na guerra. [183]

Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it, some were militant supporters of the war including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati . [ 184 ] However the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors had been killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week . [ 185 ] The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. [ 185 ] Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Riviluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919 and the origin of fascism. [ 186 ] Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. [ 187 ] socialistas italianos estavam divididos sobre se a apoiar a guerra ou se opõem a ela, alguns eram militantes partidários da guerra, incluindo Benito Mussolini e Leonida Bissolati . [184] No entanto, o Partido Socialista Italiano decidiu opor-se a guerra pós-manifestantes anti-militarista tinham sido mortos, resultando em uma greve geral chamada Red Week . [185] O Partido Socialista Italiano livraram dos membros nacionalistas pró-guerra, incluindo Mussolini. [185] Mussolini, um sindicalista que apoiaram a guerra por motivos de reivindicações separatistas sobre povoadas regiões italianas da Áustria-Hungria, formou o pró-intervencionista Il Popolo d'Italia eo Fasci d'Azione Riviluzionario Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci Internacional de Ação ") em Outubro de 1914, que mais tarde evoluiu para o Fasci di Combattimento em 1919 ea origem do fascismo. [186] O nacionalismo Mussolini lhe permitiu angariar fundos a partir de Ansaldo (uma empresa de armamento) e de outras empresas para criar Il Popolo d'Italia para convencer socialistas e revolucionários para apoiar a guerra. [187]

In April 1918 the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities was held that included Czechoslovak , Italian , Polish , Transylvanian , and Yugoslav representatives that urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary . [ 181 ] Em abril de 1918 o Congresso de Roma de nacionalidades oprimidas foi realizado, que incluiu Checoslováquia , italiano , polonês , da Transilvânia , e jugoslava representantes que instou os aliados ao apoio nacional à autodeterminação para os povos que residem na Áustria-Hungria . [181]

Opposition Oposição

Rubble covered Sackville Street in Dublin after violence between Irish rebels and UK armed forces during the Easter Rising of 1916. Escombros abrangidos Sackville Street, em Dublin , após a violência entre os rebeldes irlandeses e as forças armadas do Reino Unido durante a Revolta de Páscoa de 1916.

1917 – Execution at Verdun at the time of the mutinies. 1917 - Execução em Verdun na época dos motins. The trade union and socialist movements had long voiced their opposition to a war, which they argued, meant only that workers would kill other workers in the interest of capitalism. O sindicato dos movimentos socialistas e há muito tempo expressaram sua oposição à guerra, que eles argumentavam, significava apenas que os trabalhadores iria matar os outros trabalhadores, no interesse do capitalismo. Once war was declared, however, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Uma vez que a guerra foi declarada, porém, muitos socialistas e os sindicatos apoiados seus governos. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks , the Socialist Party of America , and the Italian Socialist Party , and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht , Rosa Luxemburg and their followers in Germany. Entre as exceções foram os bolcheviques , o Partido Socialista da América , eo Partido Socialista Italiano , e pessoas como Karl Liebknecht , Rosa Luxemburgo e seus seguidores na Alemanha. There were also small anti-war groups in Britain and France. Havia também pequenos grupos anti-guerra na Grã-Bretanha e França.

Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. Muitos países presos aqueles que falaram contra o conflito. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. Estes incluíram Eugene Debs , nos Estados Unidos e Bertrand Russell na Grã-Bretanha. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 effectively made free speech illegal and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Em os EUA, a lei de espionagem de 1917, efetivamente tornaram ilegal a liberdade de expressão e muitas penas de prisão muito tempo para as declarações de fato considerado antipatriótico. The Sedition Act of 1918 made any statements deemed "disloyal" a federal crime. A Lei de Sedição de 1918, fez declarações consideradas "desleais" um crime federal. Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors. [ 96 ] Publicações em todos os críticos do governo foram retiradas de circulação pela censura postal. [96]

A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists held hostility to. Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part in intervention with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . [ 188 ] The war had begun amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had begun in 1912 and by 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland between Irish unionists and republicans. [ 188 ] Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland in order to stir unrest in the United Kingdom. [ 188 ] The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising. [ 189 ] Um número de nacionalistas se opuseram à intervenção, particularmente nos estados que os nacionalistas detidos hostilidade. nacionalistas irlandeses firme oposição participa na intervenção com o Reino Unido da Grã-Bretanha e Irlanda . [188] A guerra tinha começado em meio à crise Home Rule na Irlanda que tinha começado em 1912 e em 1914 houve uma séria possibilidade de um surto de guerra civil na Irlanda, entre os unionistas e republicanos irlandeses. [188] nacionalistas irlandeses e os marxistas tentaram perseguir a independência da Irlanda, que culminou com a Revolta de Páscoa de 1916, com a Alemanha a enviar 20.000 rifles para a Irlanda, a fim de agitar inquietação no Reino Unido. [188] O governo do Reino Unido colocou Portugal sob a lei marcial em resposta a Revolta de Páscoa. [189]

Other opposition came from conscientious objectors – some socialist, some religious – who refused to fight. Outros oposição veio de objectores de consciência - alguns socialistas, alguns religiosos - que se recusou a lutar. In Britain 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. [ 190 ] Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Na Grã-Bretanha 16.000 pessoas solicitaram o estatuto de objector de consciência. [190] Muitos anos sofreu de prisão, incluindo confinamento em solitária , pão e rações de água. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply". Mesmo após a guerra, na Grã-Bretanha muitos anúncios de emprego foram marcados "Não objectores de consciência são obrigados a aplicar".

The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service. [ 191 ] A Revolta da Ásia Central, começou no verão de 1916, quando o Império Russo governo terminou sua isenção de muçulmanos do serviço militar. [191]

In 1917, a series of mutinies in the French army led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned. Em 1917, uma série de motins no exército francês levou a dezenas de soldados a serem executados e muitos outros presos.

In Milan in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organized and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. [ 192 ] The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city with almost fifty people killed (three of which were Italian soldiers) and over 800 people arrested. [ 192 ] Em Milão, maio 1917, bolcheviques revolucionários organizados e empenhados em tumulto para pedir o fim da guerra, e conseguiu fechar fábricas e paragem de transportes públicos. [192] O Exército italiano foi forçado a entrar Milão com tanques e metralhadoras para enfrentar bolcheviques e anarquistas que combateu violentamente até 23 de maio, quando o exército assumiu o controle da cidade, com quase cinqüenta pessoas morreram (três dos quais eram soldados italianos) e mais de 800 pessoas foram presas. [192]

The Conscription Crisis of 1917 in Canada erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers . [ 193 ] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded. [ 194 ] A Crise de Recrutamento de 1917 no Brasil começou quando o primeiro-ministro conservador Robert Borden trouxe o serviço militar obrigatório sobre a objeção de francófonos quebequenses . [193] Fora de cerca de 625.000 canadenses que serviu cerca de 60.000 foram mortas e outras 173.000 ficaram feridas. [ 194]

In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly entered into peace negotiations with the Allied powers, with his brother-in-law Sixtus as intermediary, without the knowledge of his ally Germany. Em 1917, o Imperador Carlos I da Áustria secretamente entraram em negociações de paz com as potências aliadas, com seu irmão-de-lei Sisto como intermediário, sem o conhecimento de seu aliado da Alemanha. He failed, however, because of the resistance of Italy. [ 195 ] Ele não conseguiu, no entanto, por causa da resistência da Itália. [195]

In September 1917, the Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. [ 196 ] In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees and helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace". Em setembro de 1917, os soldados russos na França começou a questionar por que eles estavam lutando pelos franceses em tudo e se amotinaram. [196] Na Rússia, a oposição à guerra levou a soldados também estabelecer seus próprios comitês revolucionários e ajudou a fomentar a Revolução de Outubro de 1917 , com o convite para subir "pão, terra e paz". The Bolsheviks reached a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest-Litovsk , despite its harsh conditions. Os bolcheviques chegaram a um tratado de paz com a Alemanha, a paz de Brest-Litovsk , apesar das suas condições adversas.

The end of October 1918, in northern Germany , saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–19 . O final de Outubro de 1918, no norte da Alemanha , viu o início da revolução alemã de 1918-1919 . Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost, initiating the uprising. Unidades da Marinha da Alemanha se recusou a embarcar para uma operação, a última em grande escala em uma guerra que eles viam como perdida, iniciando a revolta. The sailors' revolt which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II . A "revolta marinheiros que então se seguiu nos portos navais de Wilhelmshaven e Kiel espalhados por todo o país dentro de dias e levou à proclamação de uma república em 09 de novembro de 1918 e logo em seguida à abdicação do Kaiser Guilherme II .

Conscription Recrutamento As the war slowly turned into a war of attrition , conscription was implemented in some countries. Enquanto a guerra lentamente se transformou em uma guerra de atrito , o recrutamento foi implementado em alguns países. This issue was particularly explosive in Canada and Australia. Esta questão foi particularmente explosiva no Canadá e na Austrália. In the former it opened a political gap between French-Canadians, who claimed their true loyalty was to Canada and not the British Empire, and the Anglophone majority who saw the war as a duty to both Britain and Canada. No primeiro que abriu uma lacuna entre a política franco-canadenses, que reivindicou a sua verdadeira lealdade foi para o Canadá e não o Império Britânico, ea maioria de língua inglesa que viu a guerra como um dever para a Grã-Bretanha e Canadá. Prime Minister Robert Borden pushed through a Military Service Act , provoking the Conscription Crisis of 1917 . O primeiro-ministro Robert Borden empurrado através de uma Lei do Serviço Militar , provocando a crise do Conscription de 1917 . In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Prime Minister Billy Hughes , caused a split in the Australian Labor Party and Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Na Austrália, uma campanha de recrutamento pró-sustentada pelo primeiro-ministro Billy Hughes , provocou uma cisão no Partido Trabalhista Australiano e Hughes formou o Partido Nacionalista da Austrália em 1917 para acompanhar o caso. Nevertheless, the labour movement , the Catholic Church, and Irish nationalist expatriates successfully opposed Hughes' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites . No entanto, o movimento operário , a Igreja Católica, e nacionalista irlandês expatriados opôs com sucesso 'push Hughes, que foi rejeitado em dois plebiscitos .

Conscription put into uniform nearly every physically fit man in Britain, six of ten million eligible. O serviço militar obrigatório colocar em uniforme quase todos os homens aptos fisicamente na Grã-Bretanha, seis dos dez milhões de elegíveis. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives and 1,700,000 were wounded. Destes, cerca de 750.000 perderam suas vidas e 1,7 milhões ficaram feridos. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. [ 197 ] A maioria dos óbitos foram de homens jovens solteiros;, 160 mil mulheres perderam seus maridos e 300 mil crianças perderam os pais. Entretanto [197]

Aftermath Resultado Main article: Aftermath of World War I Ver artigo principal: Conseqüências da I Guerra Mundial
Health and economic effects Saúde e os efeitos económicos ..."Strange, friend," I said, "Here is no cause to mourn." ... "Amigo, estranho", eu disse: "Aqui não é motivo para chorar."
"None," said the other, "Save the undone years"... "Nenhum", disse o outro, "Salve o ano desfeito" ...

— Wilfred Owen , Strange Meeting , 1918 [ 140 ] - Wilfred Owen , Estranho Encontro, 1918 [140]
No other war had changed the map of Europe so dramatically — four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and the Russian. Nenhuma outra guerra mudou o mapa da Europa de forma tão dramática - quatro impérios desapareceram: o Alemão, Austro-Húngaro, Otomano e Russo. Four dynasties: the Hohenzollerns , the Habsburg , Romanovs and the Ottomans , together with their ancillary aristocracies, all fell after the war. Quatro dinastias: os Hohenzollern , o dos Habsburgos , Romanov e os otomanos , juntamente com seus auxiliares aristocracias, todos caíram depois da guerra. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France with 1.4 million soldiers dead, [ 198 ] not counting other casualties. Bélgica e Sérvia foram seriamente danificadas, como foi a França com 1,4 milhões de soldados mortos, [198], sem contar as demais vítimas. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. [ 199 ] Alemanha e Rússia foram igualmente afectados. [199]

The war had profound economic consequences. A guerra teve profundas conseqüências econômicas. Of the 60 million European soldiers who were mobilized from 1914–1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria–Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%. [ 200 ] About 750,000 German civilians died from starvation caused by the British blockade during the war. [ 201 ] By the end of the war, famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. [ 202 ] The best estimates of the death toll from the Russian famine of 1921 run from 5 million to 10 million people. [ 203 ] By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920–1922. [ 204 ] Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. [ 205 ] Thousands more emigrated to France, England and the United States.



Greek refugees from Smyrna , 1922

American Red Cross nurses tend to 1918 flu pandemic patients in temporary wards set up inside Oakland Municipal Auditorium, 1918. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. [ 206 ] From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus. [ 207 ] Whereas before World War I, Russia had about 3.5 million cases of malaria , its people suffered more than 13 million cases in 1923. [ 208 ] In addition, a major influenza epidemic spread around the world. Overall, the 1918 flu pandemic killed at least 50 million people. [ 209 ] [ 210 ]

Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the USA to support Germany culminated in the British government's Balfour Declaration of 1917 , endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine . [ 211 ] A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 450,000 in Czarist Russia and 275,000 in Austria-Hungary. [ 212 ] [ dead link ]

The social disruption and widespread violence of the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in the Ukraine . [ 213 ] An estimated 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities. [ 214 ]

In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal , a war which resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne . [ 215 ] According to various sources, [ 216 ] several hundred thousand Pontic Greeks died during this period. [ 217 ]

Peace treaties and national boundaries After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war. Building on Wilson's 14th point, the Treaty of Versailles also brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. [ 218 ] [ 219 ]

In signing the treaty, Germany acknowledged responsibility for the war, agreeing to pay enormous war reparations and award territory to the victors. The "Guilt Thesis" became a controversial explanation of later events among analysts in Britain and the United States. The Treaty of Versailles caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which nationalist movements, especially the Nazis , exploited with a conspiracy theory they called the Dolchstosslegende ( Stab-in-the-back legend ). The Weimar Republic lost the former colonial possessions and was saddled with accepting blame for the war, as well as paying punitive reparations for it. Unable to pay them with exports (a result of territorial losses and postwar recession), [ 220 ] Germany did so by borrowing from the United States. Runaway inflation in the 1920s contributed to the economic collapse of the Weimar Republic and the reparations were suspended in 1931 following the Stock Market Crash in 1929 and the beginnings of the Great Depression worldwide.

Austria–Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia , largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania . The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon . As a result of the Treaty of Trianon , 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54% of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary , only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania , Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia .

The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution , lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia , Finland, Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland were carved from it. Bessarabia was re-attached to the Greater Romania , as it had been a Romanian territory for more than a thousand years. [ 221 ]

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non- Anatolian territory was awarded as protectorates of various Allied powers. The Turkish core was reorganized as the Republic of Turkey . The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish republican movement , leading to the Turkish Independence War and, ultimately, to the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne .

Legacy Legado Main articles: World War I in art and literature , Media of World War I , and War memorial
The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities.

Memorials Memoriais

The Beaumont Hamel Newfoundland Memorial in the Somme. Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, the improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission , the American Battle Monuments Commission , the German War Graves Commission and Le Souvenir français . Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme .



Surgeon Lt. Col. John McCrae of Canada, author of In Flanders Fields , died in 1918 of pneumonia . On 3 May 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres , Lieutenant Alexis Helmer was killed. At his graveside, his friend John McCrae , MD, of Guelph , Ontario , Canada wrote the memorable poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day . [ 222 ] [ 223 ]

Cultural memory The First World War had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signaling the end of Victorian England, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed moment. [ 224 ] Historian Samuel Hynes explained:

A generation of innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour, Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans, but the old men at home who had lied to them. They rejected the values of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated their own generation from the past and from their cultural inheritance. [ 225 ]
This has become the most common perception of the First World War, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front , Paths of Glory and For King and Country have perpetuated the idea; while war-time films including Camrades , Flanders Poppies and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. [ 226 ] Likewise, the art of Paul Nash , John Nash , Christopher Nevison and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. [ 225 ] Several historians have since countered these interpretations:



Siegfried Sassoon (May 1915) These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of the First World War. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom and even enjoyment, have been recognized. The war is not now seen as a 'fight about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy . It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory. [ 226 ]

Though these historians have discounted as "myths" [ 225 ] [ 227 ] these perceptions of the war, they are nevertheless prevalent across much of society. [ citation needed ] They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as 'aimless' following the contrasting Second World War, and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. [ 226 ] The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected. [ 226 ]

Social trauma The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate. [ 228 ] Some people [ who? ] were revolted by nationalism and its results, and so they began to work toward a more internationalist world, supporting organisations such as the League of Nations . Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and military might could be relied upon in a chaotic and inhumane world. Anti-modernist views were an outgrowth of the many changes taking place in society.

The experiences of the war led to a collective trauma shared by many from all participating countries. The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed and those who fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation . [ 229 ] For years afterwards, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. [ 230 ] Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, now called posttraumatic stress disorder ). [ 231 ] Many more returned home with few after-effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict's growing mythological status. [ 228 ] In the United Kingdom, mass-mobilisation, large casualty rates and the collapse of the Edwardian era made a strong impression on society. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. [ 228 ] Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect. [ 228 ]

The end of the war set the stage for other world conflicts. For instance, it enabled the rise of the Bolsheviks and the creation of the Soviet Union .

Discontent in Germany The rise of Nazism and fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the Stab-in-the-back legend (German: Dolchstosslegende ) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The Dolchstosslegende' s popular acceptance in Germany played a significant role in the rise of Nazism. A sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced, with nihilism growing. Many believed the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it because of the high fatalities among a generation of men, the dissolution of governments and empires, and the collapse of capitalism and imperialism .

Communist and socialist movements around the world drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Out of German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles , Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity and power. [ 232 ] [ 233 ] World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by the First World War; in fact, it was common for Germans in the 1930s and 1940s to justify acts of international aggression because of perceived injustices imposed by the victors of the First World War. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] [ 236 ]

The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli-Palestinian Conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East which resulted from World War I. [ 237 ] Prior to the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. [ 238 ] With the fall of Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. [ 239 ] The political boundaries drawn by the victors of the First World War were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. In many cases, these continue to be problematic in the 21st-century struggles for national identity . [ 240 ] [ 241 ] While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab-Israeli conflict , [ 242 ] [ 243 ] [ 244 ] the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources. [ 245 ]

Further information: Sykes–Picot Agreement
Views in the United States US intervention in the war, as well as the Wilson administration, became deeply unpopular. This was reflected in the US Senate 's rejection of the Versailles treaty and membership in the League of Nations . In the interwar era a consensus arose that US intervention was a mistake, and the Congress passed laws in an attempt to preserve US neutrality in any future conflict. Polls taken in 1937 and the opening months of World War II established that nearly 60% regarded the intervention as a mistake, with only 28% opposing that view. But, in the period between the fall of France and the attack on Pearl Harbor , public opinion changed dramatically and, for the first time, a narrow plurality rejected the idea that the war was a mistake. [ 246 ]

New national identities Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. As a "minor Entente nation" and the country with the largest casualties per head [ 247 ] [ 248 ] [ 249 ] the Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty became the backbone of the new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia ). Czechoslovakia became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland , Estonia , Lithuania and Latvia , which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.

In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown . Anzac Day , commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps , celebrates this defining moment. [ 250 ] [ 251 ]

After the Battle of Vimy Ridge , where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation "forged from fire". [ 252 ] Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries" had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so afterwards, although she emerged with a greater measure of independence. [ 253 ] [ 254 ] While the other Dominions were represented by Britain, Canada was an independent negotiator and signatory of the Versailles Treaty .

Economic effects One of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. In order to harness all the power of their societies, new government ministries and powers were created. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort ; many of which have lasted to this day. Similarly, the war strained the abilities of the formerly large and bureaucratized governments such as in Austria–Hungary and Germany; however, any analysis of the long-term effects were clouded by the defeat of these governments.



Germany, 1923: banknotes had lost so much value that they were used as wallpaper. Millions of middle-class Germans were ruined by the hyperinflation . When the war began in 1914, a dollar was worth 4.2 marks. By November 1923, the dollar was at 4.2 trillion [ 255 ] marks. [ 256 ] Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and US), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the main three Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire reached 30 to 40%. In Austria, for example, most of the pigs were slaughtered and, at war's end, there was no meat.

All nations had increases in the government's share of GDP, surpassing fifty percent in both Germany and France and nearly reaching fifty percent in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street . President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great increase in US government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans, which, in part, were funded by German reparations, which, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid. In 1934, Britain owed the US $4.4 billion [ 257 ] of World War I debt. [ 258 ]

Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women .

In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and oleo ), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918 trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million. Work stoppages and strikes became frequent in 1917–1918 as the unions expressed grievances regarding prices, alcohol control, pay disputes, fatigue from overtime and working on Sundays and inadequate housing.

Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become difficult from traditional sources. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called upon to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese , used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast . [ 259 ]

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause) declared Germany and its allies responsible for all "loss and damage" suffered by the Allies during the war and provided the basis for reparations . The total reparations demanded was 132 billion gold marks which was far more than the total German gold or foreign exchange. The economic problems that the payments brought, and German resentment at their imposition, are usually cited as one of the more significant factors that led to the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler . After Germany's defeat in World War II, payment of the reparations was not resumed. There was, however, outstanding German debt that the Weimar Republic had used to pay the reparations. Germany finished paying off the reparations in October 2010. [ 260 ]

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Allied bombing runs over German lines.


Allied tanks advance in Langres, 1918.
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^ Figures are for the British Empire
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References Referências For a comprehensive bibliography see List of books about World War I

American Armies and Battlefields in Europe: A History, Guide, and Reference Book , US Government Printing Office, 1938, OCLC 59803706 , http://www.secstate.wa.gov/history/ww1/maps.aspx
Army Art of World War I , United States Army Center of Military History : Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History, 1993, OCLC 28608539 , http://www.secstate.wa.gov/history/publications_detail.aspx?p=28
Asghar, Syed Birjees (2005-06-12), A Famous Uprising , Dawn Group, archived from the original on 2007-08-03 , http://web.archive.org/web/20070803144344/http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag14.htm , retrieved 2007-11-02
Ashworth, Tony (2000) [1980], Trench warfare, 1914–18 : the live and let live system , London: Pan, ISBN 0330480685 , OCLC 247360122 Ashworth, Tony (2000) [1980], a guerra de trincheira, 1914-1918: o viver e deixar viver sistema, Londres: Pan, ISBN 0330480685 , OCLC 247360122
Bade, Klaus J; Brown, Allison (tr.) (2003), Migration in European History , The making of Europe, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0631189394 , OCLC 52695573 Bade, Klaus J; Brown, Allison (tr.) (2003), Migrações na História da Europa, a construção da Europa, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0631189394 , OCLC 52695573 (translated from the German) (Traduzido do alemão)
Baker, Kevin (June 2006), "Stabbed in the Back! The past and future of a right-wing myth", Harper's Magazine Baker, Kevin (junho 2006), "apunhalado pelas costas! O passado eo futuro de um mito da ala direita", Harper's Magazine
Balakian, Peter (2003), The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response , New York: HarperCollins, ISBN 9780060198404 , OCLC 56822108 Balakian, Peter (2003), O Tigre de combustão: o genocídio armênio e de resposta dos Estados Unidos, New York: HarperCollins, ISBN 9780060198404 , OCLC 56822108
Ball, Alan M (1996), And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930 , Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 9780520206946 Ball, Alan M (1996), E agora minha alma é temperado: crianças abandonadas na Rússia Soviética, 1918-1930, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 9780520206946 , reviewed in Hegarty, Thomas J (March–June 1998), "And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930" , Canadian Slavonic Papers , http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_/ai_n8801575 , Revisado em Hegarty, Thomas J (março-junho 1998), "E agora minha alma é temperado: crianças abandonadas na Rússia Soviética, de 1918-1930" , o canadense eslava Papers, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763 / is_/ai_n8801575
Bass, Gary Jonathan (2002), Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals , Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 424pp, ISBN 0691092788 , OCLC 248021790 Bass, Jonathan Gary (2002), Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of tribunais de crimes de guerra, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 424pp, ISBN 0691092788 , OCLC 248021790
Blair, Dale (2005), No Quarter: Unlawful Killing and Surrender in the Australian War Experience, 1915–1918 , Charnwood, Australia: Ginninderra Press, ISBN 1740272919 , OCLC 62514621 Blair, Dale (2005), No Quarter: matança ilegal e Renda na experiência de guerra australiano, 1915-1918, Charnwood, Austrália: Imprensa Ginninderra, ISBN 1740272919 , OCLC 62514621
Brands, Henry William (1997), TR: The Last Romantic , New York: Basic Books, ISBN 0465069584 , OCLC 36954615 Brands, William Henry (1997), TR: O Último Romântico, New York: Basic Books, ISBN 0465069584 , OCLC 36954615
Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy , Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press . Brown, Judith M. (1994), a Índia Moderna: As Origens de uma democracia da Ásia, Oxford e Nova York: Oxford University Press . Pp. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 0198731132 xiii, 474, ISBN 0198731132 . .
Chickering, Rodger (2004), Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521839084 , OCLC 55523473 Chickering, Rodger (2004), Alemanha Imperial ea Grande Guerra, 1914-1918, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521839084 , OCLC 55523473
Clark, Charles Upson (1927), Bessarabia, Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea , New York: Dodd, Mead, OCLC 150789848 , http://depts.washington.edu/cartah/text_archive/clark/meta_pag.shtml Clark, Charles Upson (1927), Bessarábia, Romênia e Rússia no Mar Negro , Nova York: Dodd, Mead, OCLC 150789848 , http://depts.washington.edu/cartah/text_archive/clark/meta_pag.shtml
Cockfield, Jamie H (1997), With snow on their boots : The tragic odyssey of the Russian Expeditionary Force in France during World War 1 , Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312220820 Cockfield, Jamie H (1997), com neve nas botas: A odisséia trágica da Força Expedicionária russo na França durante a 1 ª Guerra Mundial, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312220820
Conlon, Joseph M (PDF), The historical impact of epidemic typhus , Montana State University , http://entomology.montana.edu/historybug/TYPHUS-Conlon.pdf , retrieved 2009-04-21 Conlon, José M (PDF), o impacto histórico de epidemia de tifo , Montana State University, http://entomology.montana.edu/historybug/TYPHUS-Conlon.pdf , recuperado 2009/04/21
Cook, Tim (2006), "The politics of surrender: Canadian soldiers and the killing of prisoners in the First World War", The Journal of Military History 70 (3): 637–665, doi : 10.1353/jmh.2006.0158 Cook, Tim (2006), "A política de entrega: os soldados canadenses e assassinato de prisioneiros na Primeira Guerra Mundial", The Journal of Military History 70 (3): 637-665, doi : 10.1353/jmh.2006.0158
Cross, Wilbur L (1991), Zeppelins of World War I , New York: Paragon Press, ISBN 9781557783820 , OCLC 22860189 Cruz, L Wilbur (1991), zepelins da I Guerra Mundial, New York: Imprensa Paragon, ISBN 9781557783820 , OCLC 22860189
Djokić, Dejan (2003), Yugoslavism : histories of a failed idea, 1918-1992 , London: Hurst, OCLC 51093251 Djokic, Dejan (2003), Yugoslavism: histórias de uma idéia fracassou, 1918-1992, Londres: Hurst, OCLC 51093251
Dignan, Don K (February 1971), "The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations during World War I", The Pacific Historical Review (University of California Press) 40 (1): 57–76, JSTOR 3637829 , ISSN 0030-8684
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Gray, Randal; Argyle, Christopher (1990), Chronicle of the First World War , New York: Facts on File, ISBN 9780816025954 , OCLC 19398100
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[show]v · d · e World War I

European theatre : ( Balkans · Western Front · Eastern Front · Italian Front )
Middle Eastern theatre : ( Caucasus · Mesopotamia · Sinai and Palestine · Gallipoli · Persia )
African theatre : ( South-West · West · East · North )
Asian and Pacific theatre : ( Siege of Tsingtao )
Atlantic Ocean · Mediterranean

Major participants
( People ) Entente Powers Russian Empire / Republic · French Empire : France , Vietnam · British Empire : United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , India , New Zealand , Newfoundland , South Africa · Italy · Romania · United States · Serbia · Portugal · China · Japan · Belgium · Montenegro · Greece · Armenia · Brazil

Central Powers Germany · Austria-Hungary · Ottoman Empire · Bulgaria


Timeline Linha do tempo Pre-conflicts Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) · Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) · First Balkan War (1912–1913) · Second Balkan War (1913)

Prelude Prelúdio Origins · Sarajevo assassination · July Crisis

1914 1914 Battle of the Frontiers · Battle of Cer · First Battle of the Marne · Battle of Tannenberg · Battle of Galicia · Battle of the Masurian Lakes · Battle of Kolubara · Battle of Sarıkamış · Race to the Sea · First Battle of Ypres

1915 1915 Second Battle of Ypres · Battle of Gallipoli · Battles of the Isonzo · Great Retreat · Conquest of Serbia · Siege of Kut

1916 1916 Erzerum Offensive · Battle of Verdun · Lake Naroch Offensive · Battle of Asiago · Battle of Jutland · Battle of the Somme · Brusilov Offensive · Monastir Offensive · Conquest of Romania

1917 1917 Capture of Baghdad · Second Battle of Arras · Kerensky Offensive · Third Battle of Ypres · Battle of Caporetto · Battle of Cambrai

1918 1918 Armistice of Erzincan · Treaty of Brest-Litovsk · Spring Offensive · Hundred Days Offensive · Meuse-Argonne Offensive · Battle of Baku , Battle of Megiddo · Battle of Vittorio Veneto · Armistice with Germany · Armistice with Ottoman Empire · Battle of the Lys

Other conflicts Maritz Rebellion (1914–1915) · Angola (1914–1915) · Indo-German Conspiracy (1914–1919) · Easter Rising (1916) · Russian Revolution (1917) · Finnish Civil War (1918)

Post-conflicts Russian Civil War (1917–1921) · Ukrainian War of Independence (1917–1921) · Armenian–Azerbaijani War (1918–1920) · Georgian–Armenian War (1918) · German Revolution (1918–1919) · Hungarian–Romanian War (1918–1919) · Greater Poland Uprising (1918–1919) · Estonian War of Independence (1918–1920) · Latvian War of Independence (1918–1920) · Lithuanian Wars of Independence (1918–1920) · Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919) · Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921) · Irish War of Independence (1919–1921) · Turkish War of Independence including the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1923) · Polish–Lithuanian War (1920) · Russian invasion of Georgia (1921) · Irish Civil War (1922–1923)


Aspects Aspectos Warfare Guerra Military engagements · Naval warfare · Air warfare · Cryptography · Horse use · Poison gas · Railways · Technology · Trench warfare · Total war · Surviving veterans · Christmas truce

Civilian impact /
atrocities atrocidades Casualties · Spanish flu · Rape of Belgium · Ottoman People: ( Armenian Genocide · Assyrian Genocide · Pontic Greek Genocide ) · Female roles · Literature

Agreements /
Treaties Tratados Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire · Sykes-Picot • St.-Jean-de-Maurienne • French-Armenian • Damascus • Paris Peace Conference · Treaty of Brest-Litovsk · Treaty of Lausanne · Treaty of London · Treaty of Neuilly · Treaty of St. Germain · Treaty of Sèvres · Treaty of Trianon · Treaty of Versailles

Consequences Consequências Aftermath · " Fourteen Points " · League of Nations


Category · Portal Categoria · Portal
World War I from Wiktionary · WWI Textbooks from Wikibooks · WWI Quotations from Wikiquote · WWI Source texts from Wikisource · WWI Images & media from Commons · WWI News stories from Wikinews

[show]v · d · e Major armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces

Internal Interno Shays' Rebellion · Whiskey Rebellion · Dorr Rebellion · Mormon War · Bleeding Kansas · Utah War · Civil War · Indian Wars · Brooks–Baxter War · Battle of Blair Mountain · Bonus Army


International Internacional Revolutionary War · Quasi-War · First Barbary War · War of 1812 · Second Barbary War · Sumatran Expeditions · Mexican–American War · Second Opium War · Spanish–American War · Philippine–American War · Boxer Rebellion · Banana Wars · Border War · World War I · Russian Civil War · World War II · Korean War · Vietnam War · Invasion of the Dominican Republic · Invasion of Grenada · Invasion of Panama · Gulf War · Somali Civil War · Bosnian War · Kosovo War · War in Afghanistan · Iraq War · War in North-West Pakistan


Related articles Artigos relacionados List of conflicts in the US · List of wars involving the US · Timeline of US military operations · Length of US participation in major wars · Overseas expansion · Military history · Covert regime-change actions · Casualties of war




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